Indian History

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2011-12-09T03:31:00.000-08:00

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Nawabs of Carnatic & Arcot

2011-11-27T08:58:00.000-08:00

Pic:Tiruchirapalli palace of the Nawab of Arcot, source:British library, columbia.edu

Arcot lies in present day state of of Tamil Nadu. The Mughal emperor established the Nawabdom in Arcot by making his general Zulfikar Khan its first Nawab.

Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jang (r.1690-1703): (a.k.a Muhamed Ismail a.k.a Itikhad Khan) son of a mughal courtier Asad Khan.He was born in 1657. Accompanied Emperor Aurangzeb to the Deccan. He was instrumental in the capture of Raigad fort post the death of Maratha king Ch.Sambhaji (made the queen and the prince Shahu a prisoner ).Seiged Jinji fort in Tamil Nadu (the second capital of the Maratha king Ch.Rajaram) though Rajaram managed to escape.Established mughal control of south and was made governor of the Deccan-Carnatic region. He was also given the title of Nawab. He supported the cause of Jahandar shah (son of Bahadur Shah I and grandson of Aurangzeb) against Farrukhsiyar. But Farrukhsiyar eventually succeded to the throne and had Zulfiqar Khan murdered.

Daud Khan Panni (1703-1710):second in command of Zulfiqar Kahn succeeded him as the new Nawab. He was killed in battle with the Sayyed brothers.

Muhammed Sayyed (1710-32): a.k.a Sadatullah Khan. He was dewan of Daud Khan and replaced him as the Nawab. Changed his capital from Jinji to Arcot.

Dost Ali (1731-40)was the nephew and adopted son of Muhammed Sayyed. Died fighting the Marathas at Ambur.

Safdar Ali (1740-42)son of Dost Ali. Murdered by his brother in law Murtuza Ali.

Muhamed Sadaatullah II (1742-44)son. Murdered . His regent Anwaruddin Muhamed Khan succeeded him.

Anwaruddin Muhammed Khan (1744-49) maintained cordial relations with the English against the French (who supported Chanda sahib another son in law of Dost Ali) and died fighting against the French in battle.

Chanda Sahib (1749-52) a.k.a Hussain Dost Khan. Captured the throne of Madurai. Compelled the Maratha king of Tanjore to cede Pondicherry to the French, prompting the former to seek the help of his cousin the Maratha king of Satara. The Marathas (under Raghuji Bhosale) defeated Chanda sahib and imprisoned him in his province of Nagpur. Later Chanda sahib managed to purchase his freedom. With French help he ousted the Nawab of Arcot Muammed Ali (son of Anwaruddin the last nawab).Muhmd Ali sought the help of the English and ousted Chanda sahib. Chanda sahib himself fled , only to be captured by the Tanjore army and was beheaded.

Muhammed Ali Khan Walajah (1752-95) son of Anwaruddin. He remained an ally of the British East India Co.

Ghulam Hussaini Umdat Ul Umara (1795-1801)son.had friction with the British East India Co.

Azim ud Daullah (1801-19)son. Compelled to hand over administrative powers of Carnatic to British East India co.

Azam Jah (1819-25)son.

Ghulam Muhammed Ghouse Khan (1825-55)son . He did not have a male heir. After his death the Carnatic kingdom was annexed by the British EIC. His regent & uncle (brother of Azam Jah) Azim Jah was declared the Prince of Arcot as a compensation.

Princes of Arcot

Azim Jah (1867-74)uncle.

Sir Zahir ud daulla Bahaddur (1874-79)son

Intizamululk Muazaudaulla Bahadur (1879-89)younger brother.

Sir Muhamed Munawar Khan Bahadur (1889-1903)nephew.

Sir Ghulam Muhammed Ali Khan Bahaddur (1903-52)son. Last Prince of Arcot before the state merged with independent India. Served as president of All India Muslim League, South India Muslim league,he was the Muslim candidate in the Imperial Legislative council. He was succeeded by his younger brother Ghulam Mohiuddin Khan (1952-69),Ghulam Muhamed Abdul Khader (1969-93)son,Muhammed Abdul Ali who is the present Prince of Arcot.

Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of Mysore

2011-11-04T13:37:00.000-07:00

Tipu Sultan was born in Devanhalli, Karnataka on 10th Dec 1750. His parents were Hyder Ali and his secod wife Fatima. His father Hyder Ali had usurped the throne of Mysore in 1761 and had declared himself the sultan of Mysore, completely controlling the kingdom.

Tipu was trained to be a warrior from his early teens . He had accompanied his father on campaigns against rivals such as the British East India Company, the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad.

Tipu was a man of learning and was proficient in multiple languages. He was also a able war strategist as is evident from his early victories in battles.

Wars

His primary rivals continued to be the British. He fought several successful wars against the British East India Co, starting in 1766 when he participated in a campaign at the age of fifteen (accompanying his father).

Another war in 1779 saw Tipu dispatched by Hyder to fight the British after their capture of the French fort of Mahe, which was under the protection of Mysore.

In 1780, Tipu defeated Col. Baille of the British East India Co. at the Battle of Pollilur. The following year he seized Chittur from the British and in 1782 he defeated Col. Braithwaite at the Battle of Annagudi, near Tanjore.

Tipu was able to force the Treaty of Manglore on the British in 1784 , with the help of the French. The French were able to convert Tipu's army into a modern fighting force , equipped with artillery and rockets.

Tipu also introduced a new coinage, a new calender and a new system of weights and measures based on French methods.

After the death of his father in 1782, Tipu became the sultan of Mysore.

Final campaigns

In 1789, Tipu invaded Travancore, an ally of the British. They had earlier taken over two forts belonging to the king of Cochin who was a vassal of Mysore. This act resulted in an alliance between all his old rivals viz. the British, the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad, whose collective strength inflicted a defeat on Tipu. His allies, the French too failed to support him in his hour of need (probably due to their own domestic troubles back in Europe).

Death

Tipu died on 4th May 1799, fighting valiantly in battle at Serirangapatnam, facing the British forces commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington.

Tipu Sultan was not just famous as a great general , but also as a good administrator. He built several buildings, roads etc and improved the infrastructure of his city. To his enemies he was a ruthless foe, but to his subjects he was a benevolet king.

Tipu left behind sixteen sons and eight daughters from his four wives. They along with the rest of the family were exiled to Calcutta.

Early History of India : A Leap over Ages

2011-09-11T02:17:00.000-07:00

[Updated]
The earliest habitation of the Indian subcontinent dates some 5,00,000 years back. This was established after traces of the hominid habitation(the homo erectus) were discovered here. The prehistoric antecedents of the homo sapien in India are also some 75,000 years old and substantiated by the discovery of his remains in northern India. Vestiges of the ice age (second ice age to the fourth) have been detected in the form of large flakes, embedded in boulder gravels in parts of NW Punjab, Siwalik foothills , Poonch and Jammu.

It is widely believed that the earliest immigrants to India were from the African continent . They arrived in southern India and gradually moved northwards (traces of the negroid gene still occurs in parts of India like the Andamans and some parts of southern India). In all probability, there were many invasions/migrations in subsequence. This led to the inhabitation of several races in the Indian subcontinent. They varied from the early Negroids, the Proto Australoids , the Mongoloids , the Caucasians-Mediterranean etc. These races intermingled amongst themselves and their admixture is the present Indian. This migration ofcourse traversed ages and took place from the early ice age, and continued till the medeival times.

The Stone age began with the early Paleolithic man. He was probably a Negroid. He dwelt in natural caverns and his sustenance depended upon his hunt and the fruits , plants that grew in abundance in the dense forest lands of India. The discovery of his rather large,crude, tools and implements like pebble tools,flake and coral tools etc occurred in almost all parts of India like Rajputana, Gujrat, Upper Narmada valley, Bengal, parts of Bihar, Orissa, Deccan and southern India(everywhere except the Gangetic plains).

Most Indologists believe 30,000-10,000 was the stone age period in the Indian subcontinent.

The Mesolithic age was the transitional period connecting the Paleolithic age to the Neolithic age. This age was characterized by small silicate based tools called ‘microliths’. Like his predecessor, the Mesolithic man too was a hunter gatherer. His imprints in form of fossils, skulls and cave drawings were to be discovered in places like Bhimbhetka(MP),Kurnool(AP),Edakal(Kerala),Sanghao(Pakistan),Langhnaj(Gujrat),Adamgad(MP),Mahadaha(UP) etc. The average life expectancy in these ages may have have been between fifteen to fourty.There was constant migrations for food and people may have died by exhaustion and osteo arthritis.

In the Neolithic age there was the advent of the Proto Australoid man. His tools came to be more sophisticated, polished and varied. He started using chisels, hammers, saws, spears,bows,arrows,swords made of polished stone ( fine grain dar green trap, diorite,basalt,slate,chlorite,sandstone etc) in his hunts and battles.The evidences of the Neolithic man have been found at Galighai in Swat (Pakistan),Sarai Khola further south,Baluchistan,Loess plateau in Kashmir,Punjab,Gujrat,Rajputana,Chirand in Bihar,Belan valley(UP),Manipur,Orissa,Godavari and Krishna valleys in south India etc. He subsequently learnt agriculture, domesticating animals, pottery, and even painting objects.

Note.Today Proto australoids are still found amongst the adivasi/aborigine tribes like the Irulas in southern India,Oraon in eastern india,Korku in western india,the Munda and Santal in central India etc. The Bhils and the Gonds are also considered Proto Australoid by many, but the Gond language appears Dravidian while the Bhil language is leaning more towards Indo European. Same is the case with the Oraon as well. Their language Kurukh appears Dravidian.

The Chalcolithic age converged with the Bronze age. In this age, the stone tools weren’t absolutely abandoned but discoveries were made in smelting of metals like Copper and Bronze. The microlithic tools like those with parallel sided blades continued to be used, but there was more reliance on metal in tool making. This age also saw the use of pictorial scripts.The evidences of the chalcolithic age were mainly discovered in Burzahom/Gufkral(Kashmir),Swat,Damodar/Ajay valleys(Bengal),Jorwe/Inamgaon(Maharashtra) etc.

The Stone age was followed by the Bronze age. This age saw the advent of the Caucasoid races like the Dravidians and the Aryans*. There was also an influx of the Mongoloid races from central Asia.

Note.Today, the Mongoloid races are typical in the north eastern parts of India, while Dravidians encompass the southern landscape.

Note* This statement is only as per the AIT (Aryan Invasion Theory) /AMT (Aryan Migration Theory) theories. But the latter proposed OIT (Out of India Theory) dispels this division between Aryans and Dravidians and stresses on the fact that their race origins were the same and they got bifurcated in a latter period by geographical delocalisation and ofcourse inter-intra tribal enimties (which are so vividly described in the Vedas and other ancient texts). This is somethig we will discuss further in detail.

The Bronze age man learn metal smelting and converted a major part of his weapons and tools from stone to bronze, copper. Even the use of noble metals like gold and silver started.His weapons and tools were unearthed mostly in Northern India (with a few exceptions in south India).

Subsequently the Bronze age man discovered a more stronger and malleable metal called Iron and his tools changed contents accordingly. This started the Iron age, a precursor to what we call the historical period.

Indus Civilisation or Sindhu civilization prospered around the river Sindhu (Indus). It is also termed as Harappan civilization after the discovery of this civilization at Harappa (presently in Pakistan).Historians have tried to provide a chronology to the Harappan period by dividing it into : Pre Harappan (7000-3000),Early Harappan (3000-2600),Mature Harappan (2600-1900),Late Harappan (1900-1300).

Note: Discoveries of these ancient urban sites have been found centred more around the now extinct Saraswati river, in comparison to the Sindhu river. Hence the term Indus civilisation has given way for Saraswati civilisation. However it is mostly termed as Harrappan civilisation.

Early Harappan period was a part of the Bronze age.It was first discovered and reported by a British East India Company armyman by the name of Charles Masson in 1842. In 1922, Rakhaldas Bandopadhyay an archaeologist connected to the ASI excavated another city of Mohenjodaro in vicinity to Harappa.

Between 1922-23, explorers Sir John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Dayaram Sahni and Madho Swarup Vats conducted digs at Harappa and unearthed a fairly sophiscated urban civilization (objects discovered in these towns were – ornaments, personal grooming items like cosmetics,combs,mirrors,lipstick etc, utensils, tools,beads,statuettes,seals with animal figurines carved on them,toys,furniture,weapons etc made of clay,terracotta,ceramics,bronze and copper). The township was well planned with a grid like structure having roads,lampposts after every few meters, storeyed brick houses, drainage system,dustbins, granaries,tanks,public baths (e.g the great bath discovered at Mohenjodaro ,size.180x108sq ft) etc.

In due course many such excavations were made in and around the region e.g Chanhudaro in 1931,Sindh,Hyderabad,Jacobabad and Narmada valley etc leading to a lot of information about this culture. Today, both Harappa and Mohenjodaro towns lie in the Punjab region of Pakistan.

The civilization had its own illegible script (pictorial) which remains undeciphered till date.

The cities seemed to have people belonging to different races (deduced on basis of the skeletal remains) though a section believes that the majority belonged to the Dravidian stock.

There are many theories about the original inhabitants of the Indus civilization. The Aryan Invasion theory describes the Aryans invading from the north (perhaps central asia) with their horses, chariots and iron weapons and driving out the inhabitants (ref. theory by Sir Mortimer Wheeler on basis of skeletons found) of the Harrappan civilisation, supposedly,the Dravidians (from the Indus civilisation sites centred mostly around the rivers Saraswati and river Sindhu) to the southernmost parts of India (this supposedly took place around 1900 BC). Amongst the earliest proponents of this theory was Max Mueller, a German orientalist and author based in Britain. He proposed that the origins of the Aryans lay in central Asia, from where one branch migrated to Europe, while another went to Iran. From Iran, branches further divereged towards Mesopotamia and the Indian subcontinent. There they invaded and pushed the local inhabitants to the forests and southwards.

Later many have concluded that there wasn’t a invasion as there are no traces of any mass genocide.

Hence it is assumed that the Aryan tribes migrated in small numbers and gradually enmeshed amongst the local inhabitants. This is called the Aryan Migration theory.

However these theories are now being contested by new radical theories like the 'Out of India Theory' (OIT).

Note, both the AIT and AMT theories have come under a cloud of suspicion and are being looked at skeptically as a colonial interpretation of Indias history which was based more on vague assumptions and their personal religious beliefs rather than concrete evidences.

Out of India theory. This theory believes that the Indus region was in fact the cradle of civilization of the Aryan or Vedic civilization, whereas the Dravidians were mainly people that dominated the southern parts of India (Note: Its been concluded that Dravidians are not a race but a adjective (referring to people living near a water body: drava=water) just like the term Aryan (arya= noble). In fact Dravidians are a part of the Aryan culture). It was from the Indus region that Aryans further branched out to Bactria, central Asia, Iran (from there onwards to Mesopotamia - refer Aryan tribes like Hittites, Mitanis), Europe (as far as Ionia) etc.

The main concentration of the Aryans was around river Saraswati . However after the river dried up (Note: Traces of Saraswati have since been rediscovered by researchers using satellite imagery), the Aryans branched out and moved southwards. Many settled in the Gangetic basin (some branched towards Saurashtra), while some proceeded towards the East and the south. In the south they came to be known as the Dravidians (people around the coast: Drava=water).So essentially this means that Arya and Dravida belong to the same race. Differences in their physical characteristics, [perhaps due to their intermingling with the local aborigines] are attributed to their geographical conditions and climatic conditions). These races can all be considered Aryan and fought amongst themselves for land supremacy.There is a mention in the ancient Vedic texts of a war between a king Sudas of Bharata dynasty and a confederacy of ten kings , whereby Sudas emmerged victorious.(incidently these ten kings find reference in the Iranian text Avesta also. As well as mention of a battle of Varshagira (which is found both in Avesta as well as the Rigveda, alluding that the fights may be between the tribes of the Indian mainland and others who migrated north in central asia , afghanistan,iran etc).Similarly the various races like Bharatas, Yadus,Ikshwakus,Druhyus etc fought amongst themselves. The time period of the Avesta also appears to coincide with the latter half of the Rigveda. Not to mention the simlarity in the Gods mentioned in the Avesta and other central asian ancient tribes like the Hittites, Mittanis etc.

Amongst the early proponents of the Out of India theory were Voltaire, the French writer philosopher,Immanuel Kant the german philosopher,Karl Wilheim Friedrich Schlegel the german poet and theosophists like Col.Olcott, the retired American armyman and the first president of the Theosophical society, Aurobindo Ghosh, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak etc. Amongst the new protagonists of this theory are Dr Lal, Dr David Frawley, Shrikant Talegiri and Stephen Knapp.

Note1: OIT Researchers find it truly hard to believe that small nomadic tribes that migrated (AMT) could have had such an impact on the existing civilisation and are dismissive about the AMT, which they call the dying face of the already dead AIT.

Note2: The main contention of the Aryan Dravidian division was the color of the skin, whereby the Aryans were light skinned and Dravidians the dark skinned ones. But OIT dismisses this contention on the basis of georgraphical location and climatic conditions, stating that the people below the equator/ towards the south are naturally dark (similar to the Mediterranean europeans being darker than their northern counterparts).

Note3: Vedas mention the now dried up river Saraswati (around Punjab-Rajasthan) very prominently and the contention of OIT is how could the Vedic aryans know of this river if they invaded the Harrapan civilisation in 1500 BC?

Note4:IVC was initially considered non aryan because there were no 'rathas' war vehicles /chariots that the aryans supposedly got along with them. But later excavations did find their presence in IVC itself, dispelling any aryan invasion.Seals depicting several aryan gods like Indra etc were also discovered in IVC.

Its also been proved that the so called invading Aryans did not bring along horse chariots/iron weapons from their homeland. Rather they existed all along in the so called Indus civilisation (now termed as Saraswati civilisation). Moreover it was not possible to carry the charriots through the rough terrain of central asia.

Note5: The discovery of a ancient city at Mehrgarh (dt 6500 BC) also dispels the AIT (which dates Aryans arriving around 1900 BC). Thus a new model of ancient India has emerged as per OIT as under:
6500-3100 BC- was the Pre Harrapan age(early Rigvedic).
3100-1900 - was the Mature Harrapan age (age of the four vedas), abandonment of Harappan towns due to river and ecological changes..
1900-1000 - was the Late Harrapan age ( late vedic and brahmana period). [ref. Myth of AIT :Dr David Frawley]

There were also people who believed that the Aryans coexisted and intermingled with the other inhabitants of the Indus civilization and were one of its active contributors.
Below stated findings were enumerated after the Indus valley civilisation was discovered:

The religion of the Indus people was probably one of the earliest forms of modern Hinduism (Note. Present day Hinduism is considered to be an amalgamation of basic Vedic concepts with additions from the non Vedic religions like that of the Dravidians.).

Gods of Indus civilization: Discovery of seals, statuettes etc lead us to believe that the people of the Indus worshipped a (Trimukha) three faced god identified as Pashupati-the god of cattle(an figurine depicting an image of a god seated in a lotus position and surrounded by animals was discovered during the excavation). Similarities have been drawn between Pashupati and gods like Rudra. Also, objects looking very similar to the linga or the phallic symbol of Shiva were also discovered which leads one to believe that the inhabitants belonged to the Shiva/ Shaivite cult. There was also worship of female energy (Shakti),the yoni(womb) in the form of the mother godess. Also prevalent was the worship of the sun god, characterized by the swastika symbols found in the dig. There were also the Naga (serpent) worshippers evident by a figurine with a snake wrapped over the head. Animals like the bull, one resembling a unicorn, birds like the dove and the vegetation like the Pipal tree was also venerated in the Indus.

Dress of the Indus people:Both the men and women wore a two piece clothing.They kept long hair.The women folk used necklaces,armlets,rings,bangles,hairpins,earlings,anklets etc made of gold ,silver,copper,semi precious stones etc as per their status.

Customs of the Indus people:The people buried their dead (Note. Cremation on a funeral pyre was a Aryan practice). However in the latter phase, the people cremated their deas (This was probably due to latter vedic influence) and buried the ashes in urns which were in turn buried in tombs.

Diet of the Indus people: The Indus people enjoyed a complete diet of wheat, barley,rice,vegetables,fruits,milk,fish and meat (including beef, mutton,pork etc).

Trade, occupation of the Indus people: The Indus men were mainly traders and agriculturists. They were also well versed in crafts like carpentery,pottery,weaving,medicine etc.They were aware of measurement systems and had advanced medical practices including dentistry. Foreign trade existed with central Asia, middle east (Egypt,Mesopotamia etc). Mode of communication was the bullock cart (open or covered).

End of the Indus civilization: The Indus civilization gradually came to an end possibly by famine,floods and perhaps invasions. However there is no conclusive evidence pointing towards a invasion as such. The original view has ofcourse been the Aryan Invasion Theory. But this is challenged by other theories that claim flood,climatic changes as the like reason. The inhabitants may have then migrated south.

The concept of Dravidians and Aryans as races that was all along taught (as per a part of AIT/AMT, before being challenged by the OIT) as a part of history is as under:

Dravidians displaced the Proto Australoids and gained hegemony in India. The term Dravidian however is a western term for the word Dravida, which refers to the people of southern India. So it is assumed that this group came to be known as Dravida after they moved south. The name Dravida as such has been derived from the word ‘Drava’ or water, probably symbolizing people living near the sea.

The Dravida people belonged to the Mediterranean stock. The Sumerian texts have mentioned the people living around the Indus (read dravida) as Meluha. While some categorise them as Non Vedic people i.e those who didn’t believe in the Vedas, but rather had their own customs and rituals. As we have already discussed that as per the Aryan invasion theory (which is ofcourse contentious), when the vedic people/Aryans arrived on the scene, they came into confrontation with the Dravidians and pushed them southwards. However a Dravidian group, identified from their language, still exists in the north in form of the Brahui tribe in Balochistan(in present day Pakistan).

Note. The proponents of the Aryan invasion theory maintain that this group may be remnants of the Dravidians that were driven out, while the Out of India theory proponents maintain that a small Dravidian group probably migrated from the south and made home in the fertile Indus valley, coexisting with the Aryan population. The present day Dravidian stock is mainly found in the south viz.Karnataka,Tamilnadu,Andhra,Kerala,Lakshadweep(and to some extent the west,east-Kurukh in Bangladesh and central parts of India).

The Dravidians themselves intermingled with the inhabitants of southern India viz. the Proto Australoids , the Negroids (Note. there are still tribes in the Andaman Nicobar islands and certain parts of south India that belong to the same genetic pool as the Negroids) and other aborigines they had displaced earlier from the north (Note. This is as per the further speculations on the Aryan Invasion theory). The dravidians probably had their own script, their own laws and customs and were a very evolved lot compared to most of their contemporaries.They were acquainted with agriculture,spinning,weaving,dyeing,pottery etc. They played games like dice etc. The men and women wore a two piece clothing and at times a headress.They were adept at making boats and sailing.In war they used weapons like spears,swords,maces,axes,bows,arrows etc. They had their Gods and built temples for them.

Aryans The term ‘Aryan’ is a western term for the word ‘Arya’. The word ‘Arya’ simply means the ‘noble one’. This group of people can also be called Vedics or the people believing in the Vedas, their holy scriptures. In fact the term Indo Aryan is considered language specific rather than race specific.

Origins of the Indo Aryans: Some Indologists believe that the Aryans (Vedics) came to India, sometime around 2500-2000 BC. However a section of indologists maintain Vedic existence in almost 15,000 BC. But it is based more on astronomical calculations and scriptures rather than archaeological evidence. Some have theorized their findings on basis of the text Aitreya Brahmana of Rigveda and using the positions of the star constellations mentioned.

There are again conflicting theories given by several orientalists regarding the advent of the Aryans. As per the Aryan Invasion Theory, the Aryans faced resistance in form of the already established non vedic groups of India also known as the Dravidas/Dasas/Dasyus/Panis/Mlechas etc, whom they eventually subjugated and forced them to move southwards.

Regarding the origins of the Aryans there are again different versions. Their origins vary from the Caucasus mountains, South of Russia (as per Morgan), the Arctic (as per B G Tilak), to Eastern Europe (as per Mc donell) . According to some, the Aryans came from the north of present day Iran. Some have pinpointed a region which was known as Aryanem Vaejah (the name Iran itself is said to have been derived from this name) as being the homeland of the Aryans. From there they were said to have split tribes and migrated for greener pastures. Some went to Iran, some towards Europe, some towards Bactria and some proceeded via the Hindukush mountains towards India.

Their first stop in India was around the Indus (Sindhu) river and its tributaries like the mythical Saraswati (Aryan concentration was said to be mainly along the Saraswati river. This river is no longer in existence) and Drishadvati. From there they migrated southwards i.e first towards the Gangetic valley and from there towards eastern, central and western India. It is believed that the river Saraswati dried up, forcing the migration of the Vedics/Aryans towards the Gangetic plains.

There are ofcourse conflicting theories to this particular one. Some believe that the Aryans existed in India thousands of years earlier than the traditionally accepted date. Whether the Aryans invaded (Aryan Invasion theory) or migrated (Aryan migration theory) is also in contention. According to the Out of India theory, the Sapta Sindhu (Indus) region was infact the original homeland of the Aryans from where they spread to various directions like Hindukush mountains, some further to central asia, some to Persia, from where they branched out to the middle east and some towards India. Another branch proceeded towards Europe. The Aryans of the Sapta Sindhu migrated towards the Gangetic plains, after the drying up of the Saraswati river and then further down south. Even the terms 'Deva' and 'Rakshasa' which are presently believed to be Gods and the Demons respectively were said to be adjective for people of a common race, whereby 'Deva' simply meant 'the luminiscent' one (probably some with power,attractive qualities..the word diva or light can be said to have been derived from the word deva),Rakshas simply meant the 'rakshaks' or preotectors or people with an army. The word 'aryan' is also derived from the word arya or the noble one dismissing it as a race specific word.With time the Rakshas may have become oppressive with increased power and came to be villified.

Similarities are drawn between the Indo Aryan tribes and the people of Europe on the linguistic basis. There are a lot of similarities between the Sanskrit language spoken by the Indo Aryans and the European lingua. This was first proposed by Fillipo Sasseti and later by Sir William Jones in the Asiatic society meet at Calcutta in 1786. Sanskrit has words like ‘pitra’ (father), matri (mother) similar to the Latin words ‘pater’ and ‘mater’, the German word ‘vater’ and ‘mutter’. Also alluding to their foreign origins was the description of the Vedic Aryans as light skinned people (in their texts) in comparison to the non vedic people(dasas-other people,panis-cattle lifters,mlechas-barbarians), whom they mention as dark skinned. The Out of India theory states that Sanskrit is infact the mother of all the Indo European languages.

The Aryans belonged to different tribes. Each tribe had a king. Wars between Arya tribes were also quite common. There is an example of one King Sudas of the Tritsu tribe fought off a confederacy of ten tribes. Wars were also fought to extract tribute. In war they used weapons like swords, spears, axes, bows and arrows etc. There was also the use of horse and chariots in war.

Aryan contribution: The Aryans were warlike tribes and are credited to several introductions to India like the chariot (something many believe the Aryans created in India at a latter date), the domesticated horse (a Aryan branch probably learnt the art of domesticating horses and introduced them to India), the major tenets of modern Hinduism etc.

Aryans were earlier Nomads: The Aryans (vedics) eventually gave up their nomadic lifestyle and settled down. They lived in wooden and bamboo dwellings. An early king Prithu (probably of the Bharata tribe) was said to have cleared the forest lands enabling his tribe to settle down in that region.

Aryan family customs: The family system of the Vedics/Aryans was patriarchal, yet the women had no secondary role (at least in the early Vedic times). Some women have even risen to the stature of rishis like Visvavara,Apala,Gargi,Maitreyi and Ghosha. There were rare instances of women participating in war (as in the case of Kaikeyi assisting Dasharatha in the Ramayana). Polygamy was not uncommon,especially for people of higher social status (Polyandry was rare, almost absent and seen only occasionally as in the case of Draupadi and the Pandavas of Mahabharata). Life of a man was divided into brahmacharya(the first 25 years of his life, the person has to stay with his teacher and work for him and learn from him),grahasta(householder from the age of 25-50),vanaprastha(from the age of 50-75 the person along with his life is to live in the forests, retiring from his materialistic life and concentrating on philosophical meditation),sanyas(live alone as a hermit from the age of 75-100 till renunciation of life).

Aryan rituals: In the latter Vedic period certain yagnas or fire rituals came into existence, like the ‘Rajasuya yagna’ performed after the coronation of a king and the ‘Ashvamedha yagna’ or horse sacrifice performed to declare the king to be an emperor.

Aryan dress: They wore a two piece clothing made of wool,animal skins, later linen/cotton etc.They combed their hair and also wore head dresses. Many adorned themselves with jewellery, ornaments,beads and trinkets.

Aryan entertainment: They enjoyed music,dance and games like dice (called dyoot), marbles, balls. They also indulged in sports like horse/bullock/chariot races, bull fights,cock fights,archery,wrestling,weapon duels etc. They consumed alcoholic beverages like the Sura (a brandy made of corn and barley) and Soma (a juice extracted from the soma plant, found mainly in present day Afghanistan region).They even venerated Soma as a deity. They believed in the basic concepts of karma, but were not fatalist in their approach. They believed in living life to its fullest.

Aryan occupation and trade: Agriculture was the main occupation of the Aryans (besides trade etc). The Aryans practiced the barter system and the cow was a principal standard of valuation and exchange.

Aryan diet consisted of rice, flour items,barley,bean and sesamun. They ate vegetables, fruits,meat and consumed milk and milk items.

Aryan language: The Aryans spoke languages like Sanskrit,Prakrit,Pali etc. Their scripts (which developed later) were Brahmi,Kharoshti etc.Sanskrit is considered by many as the mother language that gave birth to not only the Indian languages but many languages that are spoken outside the subcontinent (even Europe). All these languages belong to a group named Indo European lingua.

Note: The word Ashwa in sanskrit meaing horse is the same as one would find in the distant Lithuanian language. Other similar words in Sanskrit are Pitar (father, Patar in Greek, Pater in Latin),Matar (Mother, similarly Mater,Meter) etc.

Aryan administration: Government matters were discussed by an administrative body called ‘samiti’ in an assembly called the ‘sabha’. Amongst the royal officials were the Purohita (high priest), senani (army general), amatya (chief minister),gramani (head of the village) etc. Then there were the doot(envoy) , spas(spies). Later several other departmental posts came in existence like the samagrahitri(treasurer),rathakara (chariot maker),suta (charioteer), kshattri(chamberlain),Bhagadugha(tax collector)and interestingly even a superintendent of the dice(Akshanapa).

The types of governance were either the rajya-monarchies/kingdoms (where the king was the supreme head who ruled with the help of a council of ministers) or the gana sanghas-oligarchies (where a clan or a confederacy formed an council that concerned itself with the administration). Note, that these gana sanghas were ruled either by a confederacy of clans like the Koliyas and Mallas or by a single clan like the Vrijis and Shakyas. These gana singhas were mostly in mountainous areas. Their ruling clans were Kshatriyas (warrior class). But some brahmana texts have denounced them as worse than shudras(peasant class) for not adhering to the traditions of the Vedas.What is interesting is that these clans produced some great individuals who provided a different school of thought different from the vedic Brahmanism e.g the Vriji clan produced Mahavira who gave rise to Jainism, while the Shakya clan produced Gautama Buddha who started Buddhism.

Aryan laws: Cattle lifting,robbery were the principal crimes in the Aryan society, whereby the guilty were tied to the stake.

Aryan Gods:

The latter aryans however came to worship everything in nature that held power and had a definite effect on them like fire,wind,earth,lightening,water etc.Later they gave a human form to their Gods.Probably men of exceptional qualities that lived amongst them were elevated to the status of Gods.

Note: As per some ancient texts, both the (alleged) Gods and the (alleged ) demons had the same ancestor viz Bramha (Note: Bramhas grandson Kashyapa was married to some of the many daughters of king Daksha viz Aditi, Diti, Danu etc). The children of Aditi came to be known as 'devas' (Gods) while her sisters Diti bore children that came to be known as 'Daitya'. Their other sister Danu had children that came to be known as 'Danav'. Apparently the Danavs and Daityas were always acting in conjunction and are today interpreted as the demons. They were always having a rivalry with the devas. The Devas had access to the medicinal herb/plant 'Sura' while the Daityas/Danavas didnt. So the Daityas probably were called as 'Asuras' (those without the acccess to the sura).

Amongst their early gods were Mitras, Dyaus, Nasatya, Indra (God of rain/light), Maruts (gods of lightening/thunderstorm), Parajanya (god of rain Note.earlier Indra was believed to be the sole god of rain),Varuna (god of the oceans and upholder of the moral code) etc. Dyaus was said to be similar to his greek counterpart Zeus (or v.v), but the Aryans never had a king of Gods as such, until post Puranas when Indra held that position. The Vedas also mention Agni(god of fire and food),Soma(the alcoholic beverage), Usha(dawn),Surya(sun),Aswins(twilight),Vayu(wind),Prithvi(earth),Brihaspati(prayer-later Brihaspati is portrayed as the teacher of the Gods),Chandra(moon) etc. There is also a mention of Rudra (vault of heaven-ref. rudraprashna namak vibhaaga) , today believed to be similar to Shiva (the destroyer) and Vishnu(the protector).
Vishnu has been mentioned ninety three times in the Vedas, but more as Indras friend and aide who assists Indra in his most arduous battles (One text mentions Vishnu being born to Aditi the mother of the Devas as a dwarf Vamana. He helped the Devas supercede their powerful cousin the Asura king Bali). Later Shiva and Vishnu were to acquire the primary stage amongst the pantheon of gods and Indra, Varuna were to take the backseat.Shiva came to be identified with the primeval god Mahadeva.

The Rishis (sages) prayed before ‘Agni’ the fire god for purity of thought. They performed their rituals (chanted hymns) before a central fireplace called ‘Agni kunda’ or ‘Havana kunda’. Earlier there were no temples built for the Gods (that was a latter phenomena).

There is also mention of a tusked God associated with Ganesha (elephant headed god of learning-he was interpolated in the latter age epics likeMahabharata as the one who actually wrote down the epic while its composer Vyas breathlessly recited it to Ganesha. However it was in the Purana stage that Ganesha emerged as a primary god) and Yama (mentoned in the Vedas as the first mortal to ascend heaven and duly made the god of the departed).Later gods like Brahma(the creator) were added. The mother goddess also came to be reviled in various forms like Goddess Parvati the consort of Lord Shiva, also manifested in the shakti form as Durga,Kali etc. Then there was Godess Laxmi (godess of wealth)-the consort of Lord Vishnu,Godess Saraswati (the river goddess and also the goddess of learning)-the consort of Lord Brahma-some also describe her as his daughter.
Post the Puranas -1^st century AD,mortal gods like Rama,Krishna who were heroic characters from epics like Ramayana ,Mahabharata respectively came to be worshipped as the incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Even the cow came to be venerated as a mother godess.

Interestingly , some of these gods like Indra,Varuna etc have found mention in the Avesta, the scriptures of the Zorastrians-fire worshippers of early Iran. The Ahuras (asuras of the Vedas) of the Avesta are considered the good forces, while Devas (gods of the Vedas) are called the evil forces in the Avesta, which is an exact antithesis of the Vedas.

Note: Varuna in the Avesta is called Ahura Mazda, their supreme god. Avesta is assumed to be a last millennium BC treatise.

It is found that there is a interchangebility between the letters ‘h’ and ‘s’ in the Avesta and the Vedas . For example in Avesta ‘hepta hindu’ is the ‘sapta sindhu’ of the Vedas , ‘homa’ in Vedas is the ‘soma’ of the Vedas, ‘daha’ is the ‘dasas’ etc. The Aryas of the Vedas are reffered to as the Arias in the Avesta. Even evidences have been found in a 14^th century BC treaty between the Hittite and the Mittanis who dominated the Syrian region of Mesopotamia where both the tribes refer to some Gods like Mitra(mentioned as Mitrasil) ,Indra (Indara),Nasatya(Nasatiana),Varuna(Uruvanas) as their witnesses. Even the Kassites of Babylon who came from Iran mention gods like Suria (surya-sun god in the Vedas), Marutas (Marut-thunder god in the Vedas) etc. So in all probability , it is deduced that both the Zorastrians and Aryans had common ancestors. Little wonder that in latter years when zorastrians faced persecution in Iran from the radical Islamists, they sought refuge in India and are today one of their most integral citizens, popularly known as the Parsi community (adulterated from the word ‘Pharsi’ or Persian).

Vedas literally mean the supreme knowledge. The early Vedas were passed down from generation to generation by the oral tradition. It was much later that a script (7^th century BC Brahmi script etc) was developed.
Note:The vedas are called 'shrutis' in contrast to the 'smritis' or the post veda texts.

The earliest Veda we know of is the Rigveda. Though it is attributed around 2000-1500 BC, its quite possible that it was composed much earlier. The Vedas is not one book but a collection of texts written over a period of time. It has several authors called rishis (sages) who dwelt in the forests and composed these texts for the common man. They provided him with his philosophy and acted mainly as a blueprint for conducting his lifestyle.

The Vedas are categorized as follows (said to have been categorised by Sage Vyasa):

Samahitas : contain hymns,chants,prayers etc.

Brahmanas: prose texts containing the meaning of the samahitas.

Aranyakas and Upanishads: partly connected to the Brahmanas and partly are separate works embodying philosophical medtations of the sages .

The samahitas are further classified as :

Rigveda: a collection of hymns.

Atharveda: a collection of spells and charms.

Samaveda: a collection of songs taken from the Rigveda.

Yajurveda: contains sacrificial formulae.

Also present separately was the Parishta (appendix of samahitas).

Then there is another kind of work called as Vedanga. The Vedangas are differentiated into six subjects: Shiksha(pronunciation),Chhandas(meter),Vyakrana(grammar),Nirukta(glossary),Jyotisha(astronomy), Kalpa(about ceremonies).

Then there is another literature called the Sutras which consisted of a series of concise formulae. There were also the Upavedas: Ayurveda(medicine),Dhanurveda(military science),Gandharveda (classical art). Also the mega epics Ramayana (It was composed by sage Valmiki (later there were other versions/interpretations on Ramayana like ones by Kamban,Tulsidas etc. Other south east asian countries like Thailand,Indonesia, Philipene,Burma,Laos,Malay etc have their own versions of Ramayana. The Jains, Buddhists have their own versions), hundreds probably thousands of years prior to the Mahabharata. Dates vary for the Ramayana.Some say it occurred in the 7^th or 8^th century BC, while some have given the Ramayana date as 4^th century BC. But this is very much in contention.Some indologists on basis of astronomical data maintain that Ramayana actually took place 9000 years back) and Mahabharata (It was composed by Sage Vyasa. There is a lot of debate over the dating of the Mahabharata. The dates given are very different as per different sources: 1400-1000 BC-Puranic literature, 10^th cen BC-Basham, 836 BCE- BB Lal,3130-3102 BC-Aryabhata,2449BC-Varahamira).

The Upanishads were initially called Vedanta, but later Vedanta came to be known as an interpretation of the Upanishads. Lots of sub schools of thought sprang from Vedanta like Advaita (non dualism/monism-ones soul ‘atma’ is not distinct from the supreme soul ‘brahmana’ and the goal of life is to unify these souls), Dvaita (dualism- atma and brahmana /parmatma are separate. The bramhana is seen as having a personality and worshipped according to his sect viz Vishnu,Shiva,Shakti etc),Vishishtadvaita,Dvaitadvaita,Shuddhadvaita,Yoga etc

Amongst the latter texts were Panini’s classical sanskrit ( A book on grammar. The sanskrit we know today is derived from Panini's book) composed post 500 BC and the Puranas, composed post first millennium AD. Puranas like the Vishnu Purana, Bhagwat Purana, Vayu Purana also give us a lot of insight into the Vedic period.
These ancient texts of the Vedic civilisation are a repository of knowledge covering various arts and sciences.Complex surgical menthods, mathematical theorems, theories on physics, chemistry and atomic science, metallurgical methods are a part of their repertoire. They are an testimony to the fact that the Vedic civilsation was very advanced and somehow this vast knowledge remained hiddden from the rest of the world until scientific discoveries were made in the western world (since post medeival times).

Varna system : The Aryan society practiced what came to be known as the Varna system. It was mainly a division of professions which eventually created the caste system in India. The basic classification in the Vedic society were: the brahmanas or the imbibers of of the holy scriptures and its teachers, the kshatriyas or the warrior class that defended the region and its people, the vaishyas or the trader class and the shudras or the labourer class. Initially all Aryans were considered ‘Dvija’ or twice born and non Aryans were ‘Advija’.Later, the first three classes amongst the Aryans came to be ‘dvija’. The second birth being after a holy thread initiation ceremony called ‘upanayana’. For Non Aryans to be included in the Aryan fold, they had to undergo an ceremony called ‘Vratayastoma yagna’.

As per a Rigvedic hymn, the Brahmana was the mouth of God, the Rajanyas/Kshatriyas were his arms, the Vaishya formed his thighs, while the Shudras were his feet.

It is believed that the people enslaved by the Aryans were later added to the shudra fold. They were mostly the non believers of the Vedas viz.the Dasas,Mlechas(barbarians),the Panis(cattle lifters) . Later they came to form an untouchable, a more impure class called chandalas, nishada etc.

Earlier there were instances when the Shudras could attain the status of even the Brahmanas. Sage Valmiki was one such example (In many stories he is described as a shudra who later became a brahmana. Note: However in his epic Ramayana itself Valmiki describes himself as a descendent of Sage Prachetsa). Then there is an example of Sage Vishwamitra, a kshatriya turning into a brahmana, Sage Vyasa the compiler of the vedas was born of a slave woman.
But later the caste system became very rigid and some amongst the shudras were denounced to the lowest echelons of Aryan society. Ages later they came to be known as the Dalits or Asprushta.

It is to be noted that the Aryan religion can be called Vedic religion or popularly 'Sanatana dharma' (eternal law) but not Hinduism as we know it today. Hinduism was never a composite religion. Hinduism as such is a western name given to actually what were diverse philosophies that included Vedic religion (where Vedas were considered supreme),Shaivism (Shiva is the supreme god),Bhagwatism (Vishnu is the supreme god), Smartism (all major hindu deities are forms of a main god the brahmana),Advaitism(monism),Dvaitism(dualism), Tantra( esoteric worship of Shakti and Shiva),Nastika/Charvaka/Samkhya/Mimansa (atheist philosophies),Ajivika,Jatilaka,Pantheism (god does not exist separately but is synonymous with the nature and the universe), Panentheism (God exists as a entity in all living forms besides maintaining a separate presence) etc.

Note1. Astika simply means belief in the Vedas as Nastika means non belief.But belief in the Vedas was later considered synonymous to belief in god.

Note2:Shaivism and Bhagwatism gained popularity because of their non adherence to many principles of vedic brahanism and their belief in social equality.

The early Aryan society was not very dogmatic and all philosophies coexisted and were debated.

Note:The main concept of life in Hinduism is based on the beliefs of Karma (deeds),Samsara(stages of life),Yoga(meditation) and moksha (salvation).Moksha can be achieved by Karmayoga(right actions),Bhaktiyoga(right devotion),Rajayoga (right meditation) and Jnanayoga (right knowledge).
The word ‘Hinduism’ is derived from the word ‘Hindu’ which meant the people living beyond the river ‘Indu or Sindhu’(Indus). The people from the far west of India (Persia and beyond) referred to the people of ‘Indu’ as ‘hindu’.

Jainism and Buddhism In the last millennium BC offshoots from the Vedic line of thinking emerged. They were mainly Jainism started by Vardhamana Mahavira and Buddhism started by Gautama Buddha. They negated the hegemony of the Vedas and the brahmanas of Vedic Brahmanism and adopted newer customs and rituals. Both stressed on non violence , purity of thought , control over desires, meditation and shunned the varna (caste) system. These gained popularity mainly amongst the non brahmana community and were patronized by several kings as well. Later a chasm came into being and Jainism (Note.Jain is derived from the word Jina which means a conquerer of ones passions) was divided into sects called Digambara (viz. followers of Bhadrabahu and the original teachings of Mahavira, the monks renounced all materialistic things including garments) and Shvetambara(viz. followers of Sthulabhadra, the monks were dressed in white and even wore a mask to cover their mouths). Similarly post the death of Gautama,Buddhism segregated into Hinayana (those that believed in the original teachings of Buddha and did not venerate Buddha as God) , Mahayana (propogated by Nagarjuna,Asanga,Vasubandhu etc, worshipped Buddha as God and believed in the Bodhisatvas, viz. icarnations of Buddha who had not attained Buddhahood) and Vajrayana (which added tantric/esoteric beliefs to Buddhism).

Note: Jainism spread in the East mainly Bihar,Bengal,Orissa and the west in Gujrat,Rajasthan and in the south in Karnataka. But eventually they reconciled with the concepts of induism and even adopted several hindu gods. Though Mahavira remained skeptical about the concept of God, his latter followers came to accept Mahavira as a gods incarnation along with twenty three of his predecessor tirthanaras (prophets). Note, only two of these tirthankaras viz Mahavira and Parshwa born 2-3 centuries earlier have a historical basis, rest are a part of mythology.

Buddhism spread to all corners of the world. While Hinayana found followers in China,Japan,Afghanistan,central asia etc, Mahayana spread in Sri Lanka and South east asia.Vajrayana came to be followed in Bengal,Bihar in India,Tibet,Mongolia etc.

However in due course the extreme pacifism in Jainism and Buddhism, the inherent corruption in their monastic order,deviation from several of their core principles etc led to the decline of Jainism/Buddhism (pacifist tendencies led to a decrease in the martial skills of the kingdoms that practised Buddhism and Jainism and made them vulnerable to external attacks) as also the fact that several reformist movements (advaita etc) began within the original hinduism iteslf that led to revival of hinduism to the detriment of Jainism and Buddhism.

Historical representation of Indian mythology: Incidently much of India’s history of the early ages comes under the section of Mythology. This is mainly because the early history was never really documented chronologically but rather passed on orally from generation to generation. As a result it has ended up with a lot of interpolations , fantasy, superhuman attributes to certain individuals which in all probababillity is fiction and often transcends logic. However here is an attempt to present this mythological age in a logical form weaning out its fantasy part.

Note: The ancient scriptures mention time period as 'Yuga' - 12000 years which is further divided into Satya yuga - 4800 years,Treta Yuga-3600 years,Dwaapar Yuga- 2400 years and Kalki Yuga- 1200 years)

The major tribes prevalent during the Rigvedic times were the Bharatas,Matsyas, Krivis,Tritsus,Sviknas,Ayogava etc and the group of five tribes called the Turvas,Yadus,Purus,Druhyus and Anus. Their kings performed various sacrifices like the Rajasuya yagna and the Ashwamedha yagna(the horse sacrifice) that heralded their hegemony over others. The Bharata kings were amongst the most powerful in those times, as were the Matsyas.

Later new tribes evolved with the old ones either fading or merging into new ones. Amongst the most prominent of these new tribes were the Kurus,the Panchalas, the Kasis,the Kosalas, the Videhas etc. The primeval king of the Aryans was said to be Manu Vaivasta (said to have descended from Raja Barhi. His eleventh desccndent was Prachet. His son was Daksha who was married to Aditi. His son was Vivaswan, the father of Vaivasta Manu.

Note1: the scriptures mention many kings with the name Manu viz. Prior to Vaivasta Manu-Swayambhu Manu or the self born. The name Manu is ofcourse very similar to the word Manav or the man (Sawambhu Manu = the self born man), Swarochis Manu,Uttam Manu,Raivat Manu,Chakshus Manu : Post Vaivasta Manu- Savarni Manu,Bhautya Manu,Rochya Manu,,Merusavarni Manu,etc).

Note2: There is a mention of a great deluge and Vaivasta Manu, his wife and sapta (7) rishis were the survivors. Manu is said to have taken them to safely in a boat (filled with varieties of grains,animals etc) with the help of a whale.Manu apparently settled near the Himalayas.This story very much resembles the Biblical story of Noah's ark.

Manu was said to have nine sons (Ikshwaku,Dhrushnu,Sharyati,Narishya,Pranshu,Nabhagarishta,Karush,Prushagra. Note 1: Mahabharata mentions a name Ven instead of Pranshu. Note2: There is also a mention of a tenth son of Manu viz.Nedishta, the founder of the Vaishali kingdom) and a daughter(Ila). He divided his empire amongst his children. His eldest son Ikshwaku got Madhyadesha (U.P-Uttar Pradesh) as his share and he started the Suryavansha or the solar dynasty. From Manus daughter Ila (some sources call her a hermaphrodite.She was married to Budha)sprang the Chandravansha or Lunar dynasty.

NOTE: IKSHWAKU IS DERIVED FROM THE WORD IKSH MEANING SUGARCANE.

Note1:Nabhagarishtas sons became merchants (ancestors of Vaishyas), Karushas sons became warriors (kshatriyas),Prushagras sons did menial jobs(thus his descendents are considered shudras).Pranshu's son was Prajapati, Narishyas descendents were the Shakas,Sharyati had a son Aanart (founder of the Aanarta kingdom whose capital was Kushasthali or Dwarka) and a daughter Sukyanya (married to Sage Chyavan).

Ikshwaku’s son Nemi started the kingdom of Videha. His capital Mithila was named after his son Mithi whose descendent Janak(a.k.a Siradhwaj) was the father of Sita (a.k.a Janaki or Maithili viz.wife of Rama, hero of the epic Ramayana). Ikshwakus other son Kukshi ruled Ayodhya (Sage Vashistha became the head priest of this kingdom).Thus Rama and his wife Sita technically had the same ancestor Ikshwaku.

Note:Kukshis son was Vikukshi aka Shahaad.Vikukshis son was Kukustha a person of great physical strength.He used to fight battles mounted on a bull.
Kukustha (king of Ayodhya) was a contemporary of Nahusha (king of Pratishthana).

Note1: Ayodhya line: Kukushtha-Ven/Baana-Anena-Prithu-Vishwarandhi-Chandra-Yuvanashwa (killed descendent of Druhyu)-........Pratishthan line: Puru-Janmejeya-Prachinvan- Sanyati (married to Kritaviryas daughter from Yadu line)-Sahasraarjuna = ref.Vartak

Ila’s son Pururavas Aila started the kingdom of Pratishthana(modern day Allahabad in UP). One of his sons was Shashabindu became ruler of the Bahlika kingdom viz Baltic kingdom.

Note: Ila had other sons called Utkala (kingdom in eastern India), Gaya (Gaya kingdom) and Vinatshwala(kingdom in the west)

This kingdom expanded and his descendents further carved out separate principalities namely Kanyakubja(Kannauj started by Amawasu the other son of Pururavas. His descendent was Janhu who brought Ganga to earth (Ganga is therefore known as Janhavi). Vishwamitra,Parshuram were other descendents),Benares etc.Pururavas's eldest son Ayu's descendents were the Pandavas and Yadavas.

Yayati the great grandson of Pururavas was a great conquerer and came to be known as Samrat(emperor). He divided his empire amongst his five sons: Yadu,Turvasu,Druhyu,Anu and Puru.

Note:Yayati father was a great conquerer Nahusha.

Puru the youngest got the ancestral property, while Yadus kingdom lay near the rivers of Chambal,Betwa and Ken. Yadu’s descendents branched out as Haihayas and the Yadavas. The Yadavas defeated their cousins the Pururavas(descendents of Puru) and drove their other kins the Druhyus (descendents of Druhyu) towards Punjab

(Note: Dr Vartak says that Yuvanashwa of Ayodhya line killed Angaarsetu of Druhyu line. Druhyu was son of Yayati and Sharmishta. Druhyu-Setu viz.son-Angaarsetu viz.son).

Meanwhile some descendents of Ikshwaku under Yuvanasva II (Kukshi), started a kingdom at Ayodhya (impregnable kingddom / fortified city). His son Maudhata expanded its regions. The Ikshwakus overran the Paurava,Kanyakubja and Druhyu kingdoms. The Druhyu king retired to the north and established his kingdom at Gandhara (Kandahar in Afghanistan). The Ayodhya kingdom spread till the Narmada valley.

Later, the Haihaya (from the Yadu line) kingdom gained prominence and overshadowed the Ayodhya kingdom. Their famous king Arjuna (Note. Not the principal character of the epic Mahabharata, but Kartavirya Arjuna , the son of Kritavirya) extended his territory from the Himalayas to the Narmada.

Apparently some brahmanas from their kingdom fell out with the Haihaya kings and had to flee to Madhyadesha. Their chief rishi Richika Aurva married the daughter of Gadhi, the king of Kanyakubja (It was Gadhi’s son Vishwaratha who became the great brahmana Vishwamitra, the guru (teacher) of the Ayodhya clan and sired a son Jamadagni. Apparently Jamadagni was killed by Kartavirya Arjuna (a.k.a Sahasra-arjuna - descendent of Yadu viz son of Yayati), after a dispute over the cow Kamadhenu, which Arjuna desired, but which Jamadagni had refused to part with. However Jamadagni’s son Rama avenged his fathers death by slaying Arjuna in collusion with the Ayodhya and Kanyakubja kings (Note, this Rama is not the principal character of the epic Ramayana, but rather the warrior sage, more famously known as Parshurama, also hailed as Lord Vishnu’s incarnation. Rama was called Parshurama because he was the weilder of the axe ‘Parshu’ of Lord Shiva).

Note1: We often find characters like Ravana, Parshurama,Vishwamitra etc transcending generations. Its often interpreted in mythology as if these persons were immortal. but this is never plausible in science.Hence rationalists (like Dr Vartak) have assumed that there were more than one persons by the above names (possibly that persons descendents).Hence there may have been a Ravana I, Ravana II.....Ravana Xth. Hence the tenth Ravana may have been interpreted as the ten headed one.
Note2: One has to understand that 100 years in Treatayuga constitute 1 year of our times. Hence if it is written that one lived so for 500 years, it actually means he lived so for 5 years in reality.

But the Haihaya kingdom did not wane after Arjuna’s death, but on the contrary continued to grow from the gulf of Cambay to the Ganga Yamuna Doab and Benares. The Haihayas extracted revenge on the Ayodhya and Kanyakubja kings for helping Rama by defeating them in war. The Ayodhya king had to flee and seek refuge in the forests, where he died leaving behind a son Sagara.

Sagara grew up to be a great conquerer who crushed the Haihayas and regained the Ayodhya glory. Alongside the Ayodhya kingdom, two more kingdoms regained their independence viz. Videha (also from the Ishwaku line), Kasi (from Madhyadesha),Anavas (descendents of Anu, the son of Yayati), Yadavas at Vidharba( from the Yadu line that ran parallel to the Haihayas, their cousins).

There was infact a king amongst the Yadus called Vidharba , after whom the Vidharba kingdom was named.His grandson Chedi founded the Chedi kingdom,south of Yamuna.

The Anava kingdom split into Anga, Vanga,Kalinga and Suhma (all in eastern India). The capital of Anga was called Malini and later Champawati or Champa (Bhagalpur) after their king,Champa.

The Pauravas (from the Yayati line that ran parallel along with their kin lines of the Yadavas,Haihayas,Anuvas) who were earlier defeated by Sagara rose after his death. Their famous king Dushyanta regained the glory of this dynasty. His son ,the famous king Bharata (son from Shakunatala) also started his own line, from whom rose the cousins, Kauravas and the Pandavas who fought the great war of Kurukshetra (mentioned in the epic Mahabharata). Bharata’s fifth successor Hastin established the kingdom of Hastinapura (ruled by Kauravas).

Note: Yayati had two wives, mainly Devyani (daughter of Sage Shukracharya) and Sharmishta (daughter of a Asura king). From Devyani , Yayati begot two sons Yadu (ancestor of Sahasraarjuna and Vasudev Krishna) and Turvasu (ancestor of Marut king whose daughter Sammata who married King Sughor , the son of Ili and begot Dushyant the ancestor of the Puru/Kuru vansh - Dushyant:Shakuntala fame)and from Sharmishta: Druhyu (his great grandson Gandhar formed Gandhara kingdom viz possibly Kandahar in present day Afghanistan /central Asia), Anu (formed the kingdom of Greece- Anu= Anvayan=Ionia= Yavana ++ refer Out of India theory) and Puru (heir to Yayatis throne).

Meanwhile Ayodhya rose again under Bhagiratha, the great grandson of Sagara. However during the reign of Kalmashapada, trouble brewed for Ayodhya after the king killed two sons of the great sage Vashishta. Soon the kingdom got split into two, until Dilipa II reunited the kingdom (the kingdom got the name Kosala with Ayodhya becoming its capital). Dilipa II was followed by his successors Raghu,Aja,Dasharatha and Rama (the hero of the epic Ramayana, revered as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu).

As mentioned in the Ramayana, the virtuous Lord Rama was exiled by his step mother Kaikeyi to the forests of Dandakaranya, so that her son Bharat could become the king. Rama, his wife Sita and his brother Laxmana were thus banished for fourteen years. During this period Sita was kidnapped by Ravana, the asura king of Lanka in revenge for the humiliation Laxmana meted out to his sister Shurpanakha. Apparently Laxmana had cut off Shurpankha’s nose after she dared to attack Sita. In the battle, Rama emerged victorious and Ravana was killed. Shortly afterwards, the fourteen years of his exile too ended and Rama returned to Ayodhya , where he was crowned king. Later Rama was succeeded by his son Kusha.

After Lord Rama, the kingdom of Ayodhya ceased to play any important role in history, although it had a number of kings that ruled the kingdom for centuries. Their last king Vrihadbala was said to have been killed by Abhimanya, the valourous son of Arjuna (the principal character of the epic Mahabharata).

Meanwhile, the Yadavas who were divided into several minor kingdoms, rose under their king Madhu, who established his sway from Yamuna to Gujrat. His descendents came to be known as Madhavas. The Yadava kingdom (after their king Satavata) again got divided amongst his sons. Amongst them, the Andhakas at Mathura and Vrishnis at Dwarka gained importance.

The kingdom of north Panchala which was also on the ascendency rose under their king Sudas, who defeated a confederacy of hostile kings. Later he also came in conflict with the Pauravas and drove them out of Hastinapura. But under their king Kuru, the Pauravas rose again and wrested back Hastinapura and also captured the kingdom of north Panchhala. Their sway extended beyond Prayaga.

Kuru also changed the name of Kurujangala to Kurukshetra (this was the place where the famous war of Mahabharata was later fought between his descendents Kauravas and the Pandavas).

Vasu, a descendent of Kuru conquered the kingdom of Chedi, extended his conquests to Magadha in the east and Matsya in the northwest. Vasu divided the kingdom amongst his five sons. Brihadratha the eldest got Magadha. Jarasandha was the most well known king of this line. He extended his kingdom as far as Mathura, where Kansa, the Yadava king accepted him as his overlord and was also made his son in law. However Kansa was killed by his nephew Krishna (who is venerated as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu). This roused Jarasandha’s wrath and the Yadavas under Krishna and his brother Balrama , had to migrate to Dwarka. Krishna was later to take the help of Pandavas to slay Jarasandha.. Meanwhile, the Kauravas, descendents of Kuru had gained prominence in Hastinapura under king Shantanu( Pratipas son). Later his grandsons Pandu and Dhritarashtra were to become kings at Hastinapura. Pandus sons were the Pandavas, while Dhritarashtras sons came to be known as Kauravas (after their ancestor Kuru-Dhritarashtra being the king, his sons got the name of his family line). Later a war erupted between the Pandavas (Yudhishtira,Bhima,Arjuna,Nakula and Sahadeva) and the Kauravas after Duryodhana(a.k.a Suyodhana)son of Dhritarashtra , refused to share their kingdom with his cousins. Pandavas had earlier assisted Krishna in slaying Jarasandha (Jarasandha the powerful magadhan king had driven away the Yadavas from their homeland Mathura, probably in retaliation for the killing of his son in law Kamsa by the Yadava prince Vasudeva Krisha), hence Krishna and his Yadavas of Dwarka (region where Yadavas migrated) sided with the Pandavas during the war. In fact it was Lord Krishna who actually strategized the war for the Pandavas and even assisted them in gaining support from friendly kingdoms. Thus the Matsyas,Chedis,Karushas,Kasis,South Panchala,Western Magadha etc fought from the Pandava side, while the kingdoms of Punjab etc fought from the Kaurava side.

The Kurukshetra war was won by the Pandavas and Yudhistira the eldest Pandava became the king at Hastinapura. He ruled for some years before abdicating the throne and retiring to the forests, along with his other brothers. Arjunas grandson Parikshit (son of his martyr son Abhimanyu) was made king.After him there were around thirty more kings ruling Hastinapura including his son Janmejeya.

After Lord Krishnas death, the Yadavas of Dwarka were destroyed in a fratricidal war.

Post the Kurukshetra war, the Pauravas of Hastinapura became the dominant power in the country. However other kingdoms like Magadha (under Brihadrata), Ayodhya,Kasi,Videha etc did survive.

From here onwards starts the historical period of India.

Early History of India

By 6^th century BC, the Vedic tribes (Janapadas: Jana=people,tribe and pada= foot) transformed into sixteen great Mahajanapadas (Maha=great) viz. Magadha (S.Bihar),Kashi (Varanasi in UP),Kosala(Awadh in UP),Anga (Eastern India),Vriji (N.Bihar),Malla (North central India),Panchala (Budaun,Farukabad,UP),Matsya (Jaipur,Alwar,Bharatpur in Rajasthan),Surasena (Mathura in UP),Ashmaka (south of Vindhya mountains,Maharashtra),Avanti(MP),Gandhara(Kandahar in Afghanistan) and Kamboja (Hindukush region in Afghanistan).

Eventually four major kingdoms became the most powerful viz. Kosala,Kashi,Magadha and the Vriji confederacy.

In the first half of the last mllenium BC,Magadha was ruled by king Bimbisara of the Haryanaka dynasty. He was murdered by his own son Ajatshatru who then ascended the throne. Ajatashatru subdued Kosala,Kashi and Vriji and became the undisputed king of northern India. As destiny would have it,Ajatashatru was also killed by his own son for the Magadha throne. This history of parricide was repeated amongst the successive kings (Udayabhadra,Anirudha,Munda,Nagadasaka)until the dynasty was overthrown amidst a popular rebellion, after which their minister Shishunaga became the king. However Shishunaga (some say his son,Kalasoka was the one murdered-as per L Prasad. While according to some sources there were at least five kings-sons of Kalasoka, ruling Magadha after him viz.Nandivardhan,Kshemadharman,Kshemajit,Bimbisara II,Mahanandin),was murdered(as per R Thapar) by an usurper , Mahapadma Nanda, a shudra by birth who started the Nanda dynasty. Under the Nandas, Magadha emerged as a very powerful empire. Most of the surrounding kingdoms either merged into Magadha or ended up as its vassals. This position of Magadha remained for centuries to come. There were said to be eight kings (Pandhuka,Panghupati,Bhutapala,Rashtrapala,Govishankara,Dashasidhkhaka,Kaivarta,Dhanananda) after Mahapadma Nanda.

Later the region of Afghanistan came under the Achemenid rule of Cyrus, the king of Persia.

In 326 BC, after defeating the Achemenid king Darius, the joint armies of Macedonia and Greece marched under Alexander into the Indian subcontinent acquiring one small kingdom after another. His most famous battle of Hydapses with King Puru (Porus) of Jhelum region is vividly documented.

However Alexanders victory march halted at Punjab after which he had to turn back, following the reluctance of his army to march any further. It may also have been so because beyond Punjab lay the realm of the mighty Magadhan army and Alexanders soldiers were too tired to take on such a powerful adversary.

(Note: The army of Alexander was referred to as the Yavanas, probably because of their homeland in the region of Ionia).

After Alexander return his satraps couldn’t retain their control over India . An upstart called Chandragupta Maurya (according to some sources the son of Mahanandin of the shishunaga dynasty)had succeeded in overthrowing Dhananada, the last Nanda king of Magadha. Chandragupta Maurya soon pushed back the Greeks beyond present day Afghanistan.

Chandragupta Mauryan and his descendents were destined to become the emperors of a large empire whose boundaries began from Afghanistan and ended up with Karnataka in southern India.

References:

Penguin History of Early India by Romila Thapar(Penguin books), Studies in Indian History by L Prasad (Bookhive publishers), Ancient India by R C Majumdar (Motilal Banarasidas publishers),Vatav Ramayan by Dr P V Vartak (printed by Amriti enterprises).

Suryavamsa Gajapti kings & Bhoi kings of Orissa: A Kings List

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Pic source:oldindianphotos.in

The Suryavansha Gajapati kingdom was established in Orissa in the 15-16^th century AD. Their rule was built on the ruins of the eastern Ganga kingdom. Their boundaries extended to regions of Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

Kapilendradeva (1435-1466 AD)founder. He claimed descent from the solar dynasty and thus the name suryavamsha came to be associated with his line of rulers. They also took the ancient royal title of Gajapati. Kapilendra was a feudatory of the Gangas, who after their decline seiged power through a rebellion and established his own rule. During his time there were attacks from the sultans of Bengal and Jaunpur but were warded off. There was also an attack from Rajamundhari king from the Andhra region as well as the Vijayanagara kings and the Bahamani sultans. But all were warded off (mostly by his son Hamvira) and came to occupy territories in AP and Bengal. Kapilendra was a Vaishnava by faith and patronized the Jagannath temple of Puri. He was also a poet and a man of learning. After the death of Kapilendra there was a succession battle between his younger son and chosen heir Purshottam and Hamvira which Hamvira won.

Purshottamdeva (1468-97)son. Faced rebellion from his brother Hamvira and was ousted between 1472-76 (whereby Hamvira became king). But Purshottamdeva regained the kingdom in 1476.Purshottamdeva invaded and defeated the Kanchipuram king (Kanchipuram was then under the Vijayanagara king Virupaksharaya II) and married his daughter Padmavati.

Prataprudradeva (1497-1540)son. He was a patron of arts and literature.He also revered the faous saint Chaitanya.

Kaluadeva (1540-41) Rule lasted barely for a year.

Kakharuadeva (1541)last ruler. Killed by Govinda Vidyadhara the prime minister who usurped the throne and established his Bhoi ruling dynasty in Orissa. The Gajapati dynasty later survived in Parlakhemundi.

Bhoi dynasty

Govinda Vidyadhara
Chakrapratap .son
Narsingha.son. kills father usurps the throne.
Raghuram. son.weak king.upstaged by Mukunda Harichandan the (East Chalukyan) feudatory of Cuttock.

Mukunda Harichandan Gajapati. assumes the title Gajapati.Challenged by another noble Danardana Vidyadhara (also a Bhoi).During his time there are intrusions by Afghan sultans.Killed in battle by Ramchandradeva I (son of Danardana Vidyadhara).

Ramchandradeva I (1568-1600)reestablishes the Bhoi kingdom. shifts capital to Khurda.Becomes a vassal of mughals.Mansingh gives him title of Gajapati and gives him administration of Jaggannath Puri temple.

Purushottamdeva (1600-1622) Makaram Khan invaded Orissa and the king took refuge in Manatari near Ranpur.Vassals of Afghan sultans and later Mughals.

Narsingh deva (1622-46)established Biranarsingpur Sasan and divided sasans into 4 types: Batchsa,Nandsa,Bajpei,Gotriya.

Gangadhardeva and Balabhadradeva (1646-55) Balabhadradeva established sasan called Balabhadrapur and fort.

Mukundadeva (1655-93)shifted capital to Rathipur.Rebellions of Paiks (local militia) and a famine.

Dibyasinhdeva (1693-1720) Akram Khan attacked the temple.

Harekrishna deva (1720-25) established Harekrishnapur sasan.

Gopinathdeva (1725-32)establishes the Rautarapura sasan.

Ramchandradeva II (1732) forced to marry daughter of Murshid Kuli Khan and was declared outcaste(forfeited from the rright to enter the Jagannath temple).After marlriage he stayed at Narsingarh. During his time one Taki Khan also attacked Puri.

Birakishore deva (1743-73) vassal of Marathas.

Dibyasinghdeva (1773-91)During his time the dancing hall of the Konark temple collapsed and these stones were used to construct the Bhogamandapa of the Jagannath temple. Sun Pillar-Arunasthambha was shifted from that place and installed at the lions gate of Jagganatha Puri temple.

Mukundadeva (1791-1818) constructed Khurda fort. conquest by the British.last Bhoi ruler.

Kings of Rajputana

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Sikhs

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Pic source: british library

Sikhs are inhabitants mainly of the present state of Punjab, even though their diaspora exists all around the world. They were previously hindus who were attracte to the spiritual philosophy of Guru Nanak.Sikhism emerged as a religious movement in the fifteenth century under the mughal rule. It proposed a reformist philosophy parallel to the hindu line of thought, yet opposing some of its customs. Thus it quickly found many takers in the masses.Sikhism eventually became a religion during the time of Guru Gobind singh, who baptised his followers to the faith and created a separate code of conduct and customs for them. It became a militant religion specifically to protect the hindu populace from the atrocities of the bigoted mughals. Incidently the religion and its Gurus have a lot of followers amongst hindu punjabis as well and one often finds a member in the same family being baptised into a sikh while the rest remain hindus. Sikhism is a monotheist religion unlike contemporary Hinduism with its pantheon of Gods and Godesses, though eventually the Gurus(spiritual leaders) themselves came to be deified along with their holy book the 'Guru Granth Sahib.'

1469-1538 Guru Nanak is the founder of Sikhism. During his lifetime, Nanak becomes the first Sikh guru (spiritual leader), propounding the concept of Sikhism. He is born in a Hindu Khatri f family, the son of Kalu Mehta and Mata Tripta.

1538 Guru Angad Guru Angad is a disciple of Guru Nanak and his successor. Earlier known by the name of Baba

Lehna, he introduces the Gurumukhi script which is used by Sikhs from this point onwards. He

dies at the age of forty-age.

1552 Guru Amar Das becomes third guru at the age of 73. He is a social reformer who believes

In equality for women and abolition of customs like sati and purdah.He introduces the system of

langar that is the grand sikh feast where all guest, followers are treated to a sumptuous

lunch/dinner before meeting the Guru.

1574-81 Guru Ram Das Son-in-law. Organized Sikh structure & wrote Laava.

1581-1606 Guru Arjun dev Son. murdered by the mughal emperor Jehangir.

First compiler of Adi Granth.

1606 The Sikhs are punished for Guru Arjun Dev helping Khusrav, the rebellious son of mughal emperor, Jehangir.

Arjun Dev is killed, and his son succeeds him and raises an army, opposing the Moghuls openly. Only a few skirmishes result from this until after the death of Har Gobind.

1606-1645 Guru HarGobind Son. The first to take up arms in the defence of the community.

1645-1661 Guru Harrai Grandson. Aided Mughal emperor's son, Dara

Shaikoh.

1661 The Sikhs had maintained good relations with the heir to the mughals, Dara Shukoh (Shaikoh), sheltering him and providing him with support in his battle to defeat his brother and eventual murderer, Aurangzeb. The victorious Aurangzeb dislikes them for that reason.When Guru Har Rai dies, Aurangzeb attempts to install his own man, Ram Raj. The Sikhs ignore this and proclaim their own successor, Tegh Bahadur.

1661-1664 Ram Raj / Ram Rai Son but estranged. Apparently never ruled.

1661-1664 Guru HarKrishan Youngest son and successor of Har Rai. Died early of smallpox.

1664-1665 Guru Tegh Bahadur Uncle. Imprisoned, tortured, and killed.

1675 Tegh Bahadur is imprisoned by Aurangzeb in the hope of persuading him to embrace Islam. He

refuses and is tortured to death over five days.

1675-1708 Guru Gobind singh Son. Led the Sikhs to form a warrior community.

1675 Gobind Singh leads the Sikhs into forming a warrior culture which challenges themughals, fighting them continuously. To achieve this, he baptises the Sikhs into a community called Khalsa Panth. He devises a code of rules for the Sikhs including keeping long hair and a beard, wearing a turban, carrying arms, and so on.

1708 Gobind Singh is attacked by mughal assassins and dies from his wounds at Nanded (Maharashtra). His sons are also murdered.

1716 The death of the leading Sikh general, Banda Bahadur (who earlier killed Gobind Singh's assassins, including the instigator, Wazir Khan, nawab of Sirhind, after winning battles at Samana, Sadaura and Sirhind), at the hands of the mughals under Farrukhsiyar spurs on the Sikhs to form their own kingdom.

The Sikhs divide the army and their territories into 'misls', clan confederacies, which only united

to fend off Afghan attacks.

1761 The Peshwa sends an army to challenge the Afghan under Ahmad Shah Abdali, and the Maratha army is decisively defeated on 13 January 1761 at the Third Battle of Panipat. However, the Sikhs soon gain power over areas of Punjab at Afghanistan's expense.

Sikh Empire 1799-1849 AD

Ranjit Singh was the one eyed son of a Sikh chieftain. He unified all of the misls and captured Lahore, which allowed him to establish the Sikh kingdom of the Punjab. The Sikh kingdom (or empire) encompassed the Punjab, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sindh, and parts of Tibet and Afghanistan.

A disciplined and modern army was built up with help from some European mercenaries (French, along with Italians
from the French-created republics).

1799-1839 Ranjit Singh b.1780 First Sikh King.

Ranjit singh builds several gurudwaras (sikh temples) and also coats the famous temple at Amritsar with gold. Dies 1839 allegedly poisoned.

1832-1834 The Sikhs are led by their General Hari Singh Nalwa, capturing Peshawar from the Afghans.

Later the Afghans defeat the Sikhs under the leadership of Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammed, near Jamrud, and kill Hari Singh. However, they fail to retake Peshawar due to their own lack of unity and bad judgment on the part of Dost Mohammad Khan regarding the people of Peshawar.

1839 Kharak singh. Son. Kharak Singh is toppled from power in a matter of months and fatally

poisoned.

1840-41 Nau Nihal singh Brother. Dies.

1841-43 Sher singh. Brother. Sher Singh becomes king with the help of the Hindu Dogra community. Murdered.

1842 The newly restored emir of Afghanistan, Dost Mohammad Khan, allies himself to the Sikhs aspart of his policy of continuing hostilities against the British in India.

1843 Unrest and rebellion have been stirring in the Sikh ranks, and the king is murdered by his cousin,Ajit Singh Sindhanwala, who in turn is killed by the Dogras. Jind Kaur, the youngest widow of Ranjit Singh, becomes regent for her infant son, Duleep Singh. Her brother, Jawahir Singh, becomes her wazir.

He is murdered and replaced by Lal Singh. Tej Singh becomes the army commander. Both are converted Dogras.

1843-49 Duleep singh . infant son of Ranjit singh becomes king with Jind Kaur mother as regent.

1844-1845 The British annexe Sindh in 1844, and the Sikhs attack British divisions at Ferozepur. The First Anglo-Sikh War is triggered in 1845. The Sikhs fight well, but eventually succumb to the disciplined British army following betrayals by some of their Dogra generals.

1846 The Lahore Treaty involves a war indemnity of 15,000,000 rupees (1.5 crore) is paid to the British. As a sum so vast was not easy to raise, the Sikhs are forced to cede to the East India Company (as an equivalent of one crore of rupees) Kashmir (later sold to the Dogras), Hazarah, and all the forts, territories,rights and interests in the hill countries situated between the rivers Beas and Indus. Thesubsequent Treaty of Bhyroval provides for the regent queen, Jind Kaur, to be awarded a pension of 150,000 rupees (1.5 lakh) and be replaced by a British resident in Lahore supported by a Council of Regency, with agents in other cities and regions. Jind Kaur tries to regain power

but is eventually sent into exile.

1848-49 The Second Anglo-Sikh War commences when the Sikhs resent excessive British interference in their affairs. There is help from Dost Mohammed Khan, the Afghan king. Yet again due to internal dissensions, the Sikhs are defeated at Gujarat on 21 February 1849. Their Afghan allies are forced to retreat.

The Sikh kingdom is finally dissolved by British, being broken up into separate princely states and the British province of Punjab, all of which are granted statehood. A lieutenant-governorship is formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the British Crown. The royal family itself settles in England (in 1854).

In 1857, the Sikhs fight alongside the British in suppressing the Sepoy Mutiny, providing some of the best native soldiers under British command well into the twentieth century.

Hereditary Sikh Kings

AD 1849 - Present Day

The Sikhs kingdom was annexed and broken up by the British in 1849. Sikh troops went on to fight alongside the

British army to great effect while the deposed king, Duleep Singh, moved to England in 1854. He returned in 1860,

under tightly controlled conditions, to bring his mother back with him, and again in 1863 to deposit the ashes from

her funeral pyre.

1849-93 Duleep singh .former king.

1893-1918 Victor Albert Jai Duleep singh son.died childless.

1918-1926 Fredrick Duleep singh .brother. died childless. The last direct male descendent of the Sikh maharajas dies without issue. The duty of holding the titular position as 'head family' devolves upon the Sandhanwalia sardars, distant cousins to the maharajas.

Sisters Catherene (d.1947), Bamba(d.1957), Sophia (d.1948) .Half sisters . Pauline, Ada Irene Beryl. .all died childless.

1926-? Gurdit singh Sandhanwala

Sarup singh.son. died before 1947.

?-1978 Pritam singh .son.

1978-present Beant singh

Text:Abhijit Rajadhyaksha and Peter Kessler (www.historyfiles.co.uk)

The Jat Sikh Rajas

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The Jat Rajas

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The Chandela Kings

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Pic: Chaturbhuja temple Khajuraho, photoJoseph D Beglar,source British Library

The Chandelas were a Rajput clan that ruled Bundelkhand between the 10^th and the 13^th centuries. They had started as feudatories of the Pratihara kings.

The Chandelas claimed descendency from the moon and were called Chandravanshis (Just as Kings claiming lineage from the Sun were Suryavanshis) .

They ruled from their capital Khajuraho, then known as Khajuravatika (or the garden of dates).

Their genealogy is as under:

Nanuk (831 approx.early 9^th centuryAD) founder of the dynasty.

Vakapati (855.second half of 9^th century AD) .son.annexed regions in the Vindhya mountains.

Jaishakti. Son.annexed several areas

Vijayshakti. Brother.annexed several areas.

Rahil.son

Harshdev . rule.(900-925 AD). son.

Yashovarman a.k.a Kakshavarman(925-950). Son.said to have conquered many kingdoms. Built the famous Lakshman temple.

Dhangadev (950-1002 AD)son. Kalinjar became second capital. Built the famous temples of Parshwanath and Vishwanath.

Ganda (1002-1017).constructed the Jagdamba and Chitragupta temples.

Vidyadhara(1017-1029).son. One of the most celebrated Chandela kings.He repulsed the attacks of the Afghan king Mahmud of Gazni. Patronised temple architecture and sculptures especially the world famous erotica sculptures in the Khajuraho temples and the Kalinjar fort.The Khajuaraho temple have been declared as world heritage sites.

Vijaypal (1029-1045).son. Shifted capital to Mahoba.

Devavarman.son. lost some territory to the Kalachuris.

Kirtivarman.brother.

Sallakshanavarman. Son.

Jaivarman.(1115-1119 AD).son.

Prithvivarman. (1119-1129).Ruled for 10 years.Uncle. Repulsed several Kalachuri and Chalukya attacks. Was a able ruler.

Mandarvarman.(1129-1162 AD)son. revived glory of the Chandelas by annexing several regions.Constructed the Dulhadev temple.

Yashovarman II.(1162-1164)son.died within 2 years.

Parmardidev.(1164-1199) Probably the last of the independent Chandela king. Ruled for 35 years.Faced invasion from the king of Delhi, Prithviraj Chauhan (His generals Ahal and Udal are particularly famous for the resistance they showed to Prithviraj Chauhan).Thereafter the Chandela kingdom weakened and they ruled as feudatories of the various dominant kings of the region.

Trailokyavarman .1203

Veervarma .1245.

Bhojavarma.1282.

Veervarma II.1300.

Keeratrai.rule.1520

Ramchandra. 1569 AD.

Their glory was revived by Rani Durgavati(1524-1564), who was the daughter of the feudatory Chandela king, Keeratrai.

Rani Durgavati was married to the Gond king Dalpat Shah (The Gonds were by then the new rulers of Bundelkhand).She died in battlefield facing the Khwaja Abdul Majid Asaf Khan, a general of Mughul Emperor Akbar.

The Bundela Kings

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An Introduction to Temple Architecture in India

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As man began to fear and respect the forces of nature, he started worshipping them. Man personified these forces and thus the concept of God took form in his mind. The Gods in their human form came to be housed as idols in structures called the temples.

Temples in India have a few thousand years of history behind them.With time the temple architecture has evolved with time and with every passing age they underwent gradual changes in their structure & form . They went about differing in size, style and in their construction material, depending upon their geographical location and the resources available.

In the early part of the Vedic era there is no clear mention of temples. All worship and rituals were carried out before the holy fire called the 'yagna'.

However, in the later period of the Vedas, along with the ceremonial fire, idol worship also began to be practised. These idols were housed in very elementary dwellings .(The very first temples may have been simple earth mounds, later substituted by brickwork with grass roofs). With time, the inhabitants of the subcontinent learned the use of different tools and the science art of constructing temples started to become more and more complex.

Towards the later stages of the Iron Age, people learned to chisel out temples from carving the stone existing right within the mountains and these took the form of cave temples. Later on, technology and science brought in more sophistication and temples were made using to more detailed designs (and based on certain empirical formulae).

The materials used in construction quite naturally differed according to the location and resources available.

Temples in the Indian subcontinent were traditionally Hindu, Jain or Buddhist. (with In the medieval , post-medieval periods there were additions by religions such as the Sikhism (notably at the Golden Temple at Amritsar), the Zorastranism Parsi (the Sun Temples), and the Bahai (the Lotus Temple at Delhi) etc, and others.

Classifcation of Hindu temples: takes place mainly on the basis of their shikhara (superstructure) shape and their plan. The basic classification was as under:

Note: above picture has latina type nagara shikhara

Pic: sekhari-nagara shikhara, diagram source Adam Hardy

Nagara These temples evolved mainly in northern India and were distinguishable from their conical / bee hive shape. The ‘nagara’ later developed several substyles like latina (single main curvilinear spire crowned with a ribbed ring called the amalasaraka. If the shikhara is rectilinear it is called phamasana ),sekhari (smaller spires surrounding the main spire),bhumija (central projection tapering to the top on all four faces decorated with rows of miniature spires) etc.

Dravida These temples evolved in the south and the superstructures were mainly pavilions arranged in layers (tiers) creating a pyramidal shape. The shikharas were ornate with several elements / niches.

These temples were earmarked usually by high gateways called Gopurams.

Note: the nagara shikhara in the above frame is the latina type

Note:It is still unclear that Nagara style was developed in N.India and Dravida in S.India as Nagara style can also be seen in the south like Pattadakal in Karnataka and Dravida can be seen right upto Madhya Pradesh.

Vesara These temples were a cross between Nagara and Dravida and came to be seen in the Deccan region, mainly Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

Features of a typical Hindu temple:

Note: above picture has bhumija type nagara shikhara

Shikhara/Vimana: It s the superstructure above the sanctum. In Dravida architecture it can be ek tala,dwi tala,tri tala (one tier,two tier,three tier).

Kalasa/stupi is the pointed finial at the pinnacle of the superstructure. It is believed to act as a antenna communicating between the mortal and the spiritual worlds.

Amalasaraka is a grooved capstone base for the finial resting on the griva (neck) of the shikhara.

Sringa are the spires. They are further classified as the mulasringa / ghumat (main spire, sometimes bulbous in shape) and the urahsringa or secondary spires around the main spire.

Kapotas are the cornice , a part of the entablature(prastara/varandika).

Hara was the parapet around the shikhara. The Harantara being its primary elements.

Sala (rectangular) , Kuta (square) ,Panjara were the miniature shrines(aedicules) on the shikhara (mainly in south Indian shikharas).Nasi in a Dravida shikhara is a spade/leaf shaped decorative frame with a deity engraved on it.
Alpa Vimana is the upper temple.

Gavaksha are the opaque windows with a shoe arch /spade shaped roof on shikhara and gabhara symbolizing the eyes of the lord that see the outside world. They are the Nagara counterparts of the Nasis in the Dravida style.

Dhwaja was the sacred flag a part of the temple iconography.

Garbhagriha/gabhara is the sanctum sanctorum analogous to the embryo inside the womb , whereby the garbhagriha acts as the womb and where the central idols (the embryo) are located. In Shaivite temples the gabhara is the house of the Lingum or the phallic representation of Lord Shiva (some consider it an representation of an atom).

Ganesh patti Lord Ganesha holds the place in hindu scriptures as the first God to be worshipped and hence his engraving is generally present on the frame of the doorway of the sanctum.The Ganesha also represents auspiciousnes and general well being and the devotee pays his respect to this god before stepping inside the sanctum.

Gomukhi pranala cowhead shaped(gargoyle)-spout is a vent given on the external wall of the temple to drain out water and other liquids offered at the sanctum of the temple.It is generally like the face of a cow, hence the name Gomukhi.

Antarala is the vestibule of the temple separating the garbhagriha from the sabhamandapa. In Shaivite temples, one inadvertently finds a Nandi idol (As per Hindu mythology, Nandi was a holy bull and the carrier/vehicle of lord Shiva)..

Sabhamandpa / Mahamandapa is the square/rectangular assembly hall. It generally has carved floral ceiling, supported by carved pillars , pilasters, intricately sculpted with display of idols, carvings (of Deva/gods,Devi/goddeses,Sapta/Ashta matrikas (the main Gods in the feminine form of mother Godesses) Surasundaris-Apasaras/celestial dancers, Gandharva-Yaksha/demi gods etc), motifs (floral etc), etc.
This is the place where the devotee remains seated in a meditative pose, experiencing the tranquility and his oneness with God ( after offering his obesience in the sanctum). The sabhamandap is also used to hold meetings, for cultural events etc.

The pillars in the sabhamandapa are also layered. They are either square faced or bell type. The central portion of the pillars i.e the malasthana has carved images of either deities, animals ,dancers on the keertimukh etc.

Ardha mandapa is the portico after the sabhamandapa and holds the entrance to the temple.

Nandimandapa Some Shaivite temples have a separate housing for the idol of Nandi , outside the sabhamandapa and is called the Nandimandapa.

Mandovara/ Jangha / Pada are the walls of the temple joining the entablature with the socle and the plinth.The inner and the outer wall have devkoshta or aedicules/niched windows where idols of deities are placed.

Vedibandha is the socle that holds the temple walls.Its base is called the Adisthana. The vedibandha is often divided in layers like Gajpatt / Gajathara (panel with elephant carvings), Narpatt / Narathara (panel with human carvings) etc.

Pitha / Adisthana It is a plinth that forms the foundation base for the temple structure. Generally it is composed of layers with different figurines of celestial dancers, elephants etc carved on each layer.It is the lower part of the socle.

Pradakshinapatha is the circumambulatory pathway around the gabhara, which is a part of a hindu ritual whereby the devotee before and after praying at the sanctum, goes around it with folded hands, praying to the Gods from all directions.

Deepasthambha/deepamala is a stone lamp pillar that gets illuminated mainly during festivities. It was a latter addition in the temple elements.

Gopuram is found in Dravida architecture and is a ornate tower with vertically arranged rows of niches that acts as a gateway leading one inside the temple courtyard.

Shilalekhs are inscriptions carved in stone mentioning the patron of the temple, date of construction and related information.

Jaali is a latticed window on the temple wall.

Dwarpala are engraved idols of the celestial guards generally found flanking the main doors. The temple walls/pillars also display carvings /sculptures of other Gods ,Godesses and other celestial beings. Often sculptures depicting stories from Hindu mythology and epics Mahabharata and Ramayana are found engraved on the walls, pillars,lintels and freizes.

The Water Wells (vihir/hauda ), water reservoirs (jalakunda) are also essentials of a temple where a devotee cleanses himself before the rituals or uses its water during the pooja / rituals.

Makar torana is the design on the doorstep of the temple.

There is also a presence of a Tulsivrindavan or a mud /stone enclosure for the sacred basil plant (tulsi).

The carvings/iconography in hindu temples is particularly interesting. e.g Shiva temples are conspicuous of the
presence of Sharabha (half beast, half bird, said to be an incarnation of Shiva) carvings

or the Gandabherunda (a two headed bird, said to be an incarnation of Vishnu), the Vyaal (tiger),Gaja (elephant), the tortoise (Vishnu in his 'kurma' tortoise incarnation or its significance may be that just as a tortoise withdraws its head and limbs inwards, similarly a devotee withdraws his senses from the material world and concentrates on the Lord )on the sabhamandap floor,

Veergals (hero stones in the memory of the dead local warriors mostly found in the Deccan temples) in the courtyard etc.

Some peculiar temple styles in India:

Chalukyan The Chalukya dynasty came to rule about parts of Karnataka from their capital at Badami sometime in the 5^th century. Their reign continued for a three to four hundred years and witnessed a flourish in temple architecture.

Their rock cut cave temples and exquisite sculptures at Badami are as much a spectacular delight as their intricately carved temples at Aihole and Pattadakal. These styles later influenced the temple forms of the Vijayanagara kings, the Hoysalas, the Kadambas etc. The Chalukyan dynasty rose again in the 11^th century in northern Karnataka and southern Maharashtra and replicated the excellent artwork of their predecessors in places like Dharwad,Gadag,Haveri,Dambal,Itagi,Lakkundi,Kolhapur etc. Their distinguishable characteristics were primarily their stellate and stepped plans.Some of the Chalukyan temples are today UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Hoysala This dynasty came about in the 11th century and ruled in the regions in and around Mysore in Karnataka. They left behind their imprints in the form of their vast temple trove viz. at Belur,Halebidu,Somnathpura, Amrutpura etc.The intricacy of their craftsmenhip was truly astounding and is a visual treat for generations to come.

Vijayanagara These kings of this region created a vast empire at Hampi,Karnataka in the 15^th century. Their golden reign translated into the most beautiful temple architecture at the internationally renowned Hampi and other regions of Karnataka like Bhatkal,Ankola,Kolar,Koppal etc.

Kadamba This dynasty ruled northern Karnataka and Goa in the 4^th century. They patronized a very rich culture of temples and their most prominent feature was their stepped pyramidal shikhara which became well known as the Kadamba shikhara. Their temples can be seen at Banvasi, Degaon-Kittur, Tambdi Surla-Goa etc.

Pallava This dynasty ruled at Kanchi in Tamil Nadu, in the southern peninsula of India. Their temples at Mahabalipuram (Shore temple) , Kanchipuram are a tourist delight.

Chola This was a old dynasty and probably the longest surviving that ruled the Tamil lands right upto the 13^th century. Their temples exist in Darasuram, Gangakondaicholapuram , Thanjavur etc. Their colonial extensions made it possible for the Dravida temple architectural styles to reach the shores of south east Asia.

Kalinga This style evolved in the present day states of Orissa and northern Andhra Pradesh. The world famous temples of Konark, Puri are examples of this style and were patronized by dynasties like the Eastern Gangas etc.

Maru Gurjara This style evolved in the region of Gujrat and Rajputana. Marudesh was the ancient name of Rajasthan while Gurjaratra was the name of Gujrat. Thus Maru Gurjara style symbolizes the synthesis in architecture of these two regions and characterized by Rajasthani architectural elements like Jaali (latticed window) ,Jharoka (overhanging turret like balcony element), Chatri (umbrella/dome pavilions),Bowdi (stepped well) etc . e.g Somnath temple, Dilwara temple etc.

Sekhari This style developed in northern India and was distinctive by its shikhara structure which comprise of a central mulasringa / curvilinear latina spire with rows of minor spires/urahsringa around it.

Chandela This 10^th century dynasty ruled parts of central India and gave rise to the awe inspiring temples at Khajuraho (UNESCO World Heritage site) in Madhya Pradesh, famous for their temple erotica.

Bengal and Assam terracotta temples These temples are distinguished by their use of terracotta and unique shapes (curved roofs) in the contruction of their temples. This style is evident in the present day north eastern states of Bengal,Assam etc. The 4^th century Guptas and their successors patronized this style.

The Dakshineshwar temple near Kolkata is an fine example of this style , besides temple sets at Bishnupur etc.

Kerala temple architecture is conspicuous by their roofed (slanting and pointed/conical) shikharas and skeletal wooden structure (similar to those found in Himalayan regions and South asia),multi tiered brass lamps etc.

Goa The Goan temples are unique in their appearance . They are a fusion of Indian and the Portuguese styles. Fine examples being Mangueshi,Mahalaxmi,Shantadurga temples etc.

Maharashtra also has a rich culture of a variety of temple forms . They range right from the internationally

renowned rock cut Ajanta – Ellora caves to Buddhist cave temples like the ones in Bhaja,Bedse,Karla at Lonavala and the Pandavleni cave temples cave temples at Nasik, Aurangabad caves,

Junnar caves, Elephanta caves (UNESCO site) to traditional temple forms at Chalukyan Mahalaxmi temple at Kolhapur, Nasik-Sinnar temples, Amruteshwar-Ratangad temple, Ambarnath-Kalyan temple etc just to name a few. Many dynasties contributed to these temples, from the Satavahanas(Junnar) , the Vakatakas (Ajanta),

Kalachuris (Elephanta caves),the Rashtrakutas (Kailasnatha-Ellora caves),the Chalukyas(Mahalaxmi- Ambabai temple), the Silharas (Ambarnath temple), the Yadavas(Gondeshwar temple) to the Marathas and the Peshwas.

One of the early traditional forms of temple architecture was the Bhumija style. Its earliest examples is the Ambarnath temple at Kalyan near Mumbai, built by the Shilhara king Mamuni. The sculpture work on this temple is truly amazing.

In Maharashtra , there are a maximum number of Buddhist cave temples chiselled out in the mountains. They date back to eras before Christ. e.g Ajanta Caves (World Heritage ite Unesco). They also display several carvings , wall / ceiling paintings depicting the life of Lord Buddha , his incarnations and stories related to his life and teachings.

The Bhumija style was one of the earliest traditional temple styles to be developed in Maharashtra. It was characterized by a central latina tapering from all sides, with minor spires decorating the central spire. The eleventh century Ambarnath temple near Kalyan (constructed by the Shilharas) is one of the early examples of the Bhumija temples. It is carved out of black stone with a star shaped plan and remains amazingly well preserved till date.

In the 13^th century, Hemadripant a minister in the court of the Seuna Yadava kings patronised a unique style of carving out temples from black stone (without the use of mortor, afixing the stones in a male female fashion). Since then its become a misnomer of sorts to categorise all temples made in black stone as Hemadpanti temples. The Gondeshwar temple at Sinnar ( built Panchayatan style with five temples dedicated to five deities in a single compound), Amruteshwar temple near Ratangad, Lonar temple etc are fine examples of the Hemadpanti style.

The Peshwas (prime ministers to the Maratha kings) too contributed with their unique style to temple making in and around Pune,Maharashtra in their tenure between the 18^th and the 19^th century AD.

Their temples are conspicuous by their wooden sabhamandaps with cypress shaped columns, stone fountains

and the Indo Saracenic (influenced by Persian architecture) Devali style shikharas made in brickwork and lime.

The temples are surrounded by tall walls (constructed in a arcade like structure) with a Nagarkhana where Nagaadaas (large drums) are sounded to attract devotees e.g Theur temple, Kasba peth temple,Omkareshwar temple etc are examples of the Peshwa style.

The Peshwas and their aides also built temples in the Sekhari style e.g Bhimashankar temple near Pune (off Nasik road).

Features of a Buddhist temple

The early Buddhist temple were constructed on mountains and carved out in form of caves. Their distinct features were:

Chaityagriha This is the main prayer hall where the central stupa exists. The stupa generally has a apse like background.

Stupa The central stupa in the chaityagriha is a semi hemispherical stone/mud mound which acts as the main shrine. There are also minor stupas that are also used to store the relics of the departed monks.

Harmika It is like a small platform atop the stupa where umbrellas / crowns are affixed.

Vihara are the Spartan resting rooms of the monks. They generally have stone shelves and plinths that serve as beds.

Water reservoirs They are large pits located outside the viharas to store drinking water.

The Buddhist temples have frescoes,carvings,sculptures and murals depicting the life of the Buddha and his incarnations, the Bodhisatvas.Buddhist temples also have their own iconography quite distinct from their hindu counterparts.

Buddhist temples flourished in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar etc due to the patronage of the erstwhile royal dynasties like the Satavahanas, Vakatakas and the Mauryas.

Temples in India are not just places of worship but also a testimony of the grandeur of the kings that patronized them and the deft skill of their artisans.

Book sources: Adam Hardy and Stella Kramrisch

Bahamani Sultanate of Deccan

2011-04-10T02:34:00.000-07:00

The Sultanate or empire was a Muslim state which was formed on the Deccan plateau (present day Maharashtra,Andhra,Tamil Nadu and Karnataka) in medieval India one of the great Medieval kingdoms of the sub-continent. Following a revolt against the Delhi sultanate which governed the region, the Bahamani sultanate was founded on 3 August 1347 by the Turkish governor, Zafar Khan (otherwise known as Hassan Gangu). Ascending the new throne as Alauddin Hassan Bahman Shah, he was possibly of Tajik-Persian descent. He took over on the very day the sultanate was founded when the originator of the revolt, Nazir uddin Ismail Shah (Delhi governor), stepped down in his favour. The new territory included parts of modern Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh, although true authority of the Deccan was always contested with the Vijaynagar empire.

The Bahamani (or Bahmani) sultans claimed descent from the mythical early Persian king, Kai Bahman, and maintained a keen interest in Persian affairs and culture.

Aladdin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-58) a.k.a Hasan Gangu a.k.a Zafar Khan was a man of humble origins (started as a servant in the house of a brahmin astrologer named Gangu or Gangadharshastri Wable who looked upon him as a son. Note. Aladin adopted the names Gangu from his master and the word Bahmani for his sultanate from the Brahmn caste of his master) just like his sultanate which was mainly agricultural in terms of economic activity. One of his first acts of expansion was to conquer the remnants of the Kadamba kingdom of Goa, apparently in 1340, prior to the Bahamani rebellion. Once this rebellion had taken place, the Bahamani capital between then and 1425 was Gulbarga (which was soon renamed Ahsanabad. Aladin also built a fort in Gulbarga). Nazir uddin Ismail Shah asks Zafar Khan to become sultan of the new empire, with the title ‘Sikandar- uth- thani Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah al-wali'. He is crowned on 3 August, and his first act is to transfer his title, Zafar Khan, to his son and adopt the title Bahaman.Aladin even captured the fort of Kaulas from the Warangal ruler Kapaya Nayaka. Aladin even fought many wars against the Vijayanagar empire. At te time of his death his kingdom stretched from Wainganga to Krishna and Bhongir to Daulatabad.

Muhammed Shah I (1358-75)son. By 1374, Bukka Raya of the Vijaynagar empire has gained the upper hand over the Bahamanis for control of the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab.Muhammed Shah patronised arts and literature.Was a good administrator. He constructed the Jama masjid on Gulbarga fort.

Aladdin Mujahid Shah (1375-78) son. Murdered.

Daud Shah (1378) uncle. Murdered his nephew Aladin Mujahid to ascend the throne. But, Ruh Parwar, sister of the murdered Mujahid Shah, takes revenge for her brother's death by arranging the death of Daud Shah and blinding Sanjar, his son. She places Muhammad II, brother of Daud, on the throne. Muhammad Shah's nineteen year reign heralds one of the most peaceful periods in the whole of Bahamani history.

Muhammed Shah II (1378-97) brother. Died of typhoid.

Ghiyasuddin Tahmatan Shah (1397) son. Blinded and imprisoned in a coup by his noble Tagalchin.

Shamsuddin Daud Shah II (1397) step brother. Taghalchin was made the wazir.Taghalchin was killed and the new Sultan blinded and exiled in a coup by Tajuddin Firuz Shah and his brother Ahmed.

Tajuddin Firuz Shah. (1397-1422) Son of Ahmad Khan (son of Bahman Shah). Inducted large no. of hindus in his administration. Himself a good caligrapher and poet, Firuz invited and patronized learned people from Delhi,Persia,Iraq to his kingdom. Sultanate is major centre for Islamic learning.Increased trade by streanthening ports of Chaul and Dabhol.Constructed observatory near Daulatabad. He defeated the Gond Raja Narsing Rai of Kherla but married the daughter of Narsing Rai, and made him an amir or governor of the Bahmani sultanate. Attacks Vijayanagar kingdom but the latter inflicts a crushing defeat on him.He abdicates his thone for his brother.

Ahmed Shah Wali I (1422-36)brother. Defeated and killed ruler of Warangal an aide of the Vijayanagara Kingdom responsible for defeating his brother.Shifts capital to Muhabadabad (Bidar). He was a patron of arts and islamic culture.

Alladin Ahmed Shah II (1436-58)son. Captures a lot of Vijaynagar territories.Gave preference to outsiders(Afaquis) over the local nobles(Deccanis). Thus two groups of newcomers and oldones created causing tensions.The sultan died due to a wound in his shin.

Alladin Humayun 'Zalim' Shah (1458-61)son. said to be a short tempered and cruel man. He made Mahmud Gawan his wazir.

Nizam Shah (1461-63) Son. Acceded aged 8 supported by a regency council led by his mother and dowager queen Makhduma e jahan Nargis Begum(said to be a benevolet regent).Nizam shah died on the night of his marraige.

Mohammed Shah III Lashkari (1463-82) Brother. Acceded aged about 8. the sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate (1466-1481) of " Mahmud Gawan " (an ex Persian trader and the driving force behind the rapid expansion of the sultanate at the cost of the Vijaynagar kingdom. Boundaries of sultanate touch Bay of Bengal in east and Arabian sea in the west. Mahmud Gawan amongst the first ministers in Medeival India to order a systematic measurement of land,fixing boundaries of villages and towns and making a assesment of revenue). However, jealous nobles in the sultanate poisen the Sultans mind against his old wazir, culminating in the execution of the wazir Gawan in 1482.

Mohammed Shah IV a.k.a Shihabuddin Mahmud (1482-1518)brother.reigned under a regency council. Said to be pleasure seeking. Nobles become powerful.Qasim Barid virtually forces the sultan to make himself the wazir, Qutubulmulk becomes governor of Telangana and Malik Ahmed Nizamulmulk the governor of Ahmednagar (revolts).

Ahmed Shah III (1518- 21)son.puppet of Amir Barid, the son of the prime mister (of Bidar).

Allaudin Shah (1521-22) Son. Puppet of Amir Barid. Dethroned after he protests against Amir Barids control.

Waliullah Shah (1522-25) Son of Mahmud (Mohmd Shah IV). Puppet of Amir Barid (son of the prime minister Qasim Barid). Poisoned.

Kalimullah Shah (1525-27) Brother. Puppet of Amir Barid.murdered after he sends a secret letter to Mughal emperor Bbaur to free him from the clutches of Amir Barid. The provincial governors declare their independence.

The Bahmani kingdom splits into six kingdoms viz Baridshahi of Bidar, Adilshahi of Bijapur, Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Imadshahi of Berar and Qutubshahi of Golkunda.

The Monarchs of Assam : A Kings List

2010-12-09T07:31:00.000-08:00

Assam is a state lying in the north east region of India. The people mainly belong to a mix of Mongolid, Caucasian and Australoid races speaking Austro-Asiatic,Indo Aryan and Tibeto-Burman language type.

In the mythological ages Assam came to be ruled by the Danava/Kirata dynasty and the Naraka dynasty find mention even in epics like Ramayana ,Mahabharata,Kalika Purana,Yogini tantra etc.

Danava kings were:

Mahiranga,Hatakasura,Sambarasura,Ratnasura and Ghatakasura(killed by Narakasura who started the Naraka dynasty).

Naraka kings were:

Narakasura was the founder of this dynasty. He was said to be a great conquerer. He was apparently killed in battle by Lord Krishna of Dwarka and his spouse Satyabhama.

The other prominent kings of this dynasty were Bhagadatta(took part in the Mahabharata war),Vajradatta,Vajrapani,Subahu,Suparua (he was assassinated by his ministers).

In the ancient ages, Assam was known as Kamrupa (Pragjyotisha).

In the 4^th century AD, Assam was ruled by the Varman dynasty that claimed lineage from the Naraka dynasty.

Varman kings were:

Pushyavarman (350-374 AD)founder,Samudravarman(374-398),Balavarman(398-422),Kalyanavarman(422-446),Ganpativarman/Ganendravarman(446-470),Mahendravarman/Surendravarman(470-494),Narayanavarman (494-518),Bhutivarman/Mahabhutivarman(518-542),Chandramukhavarman(542-566),Sthitavarman(566-590),Sushisthavarman(590-595),Supratishthavarman (595-600) and finally

Bhaskaravarman (595-650)was the brother and successor of Suprathistavarman. He was said to be an illustrious king. He assisted Harshavardhana of Kannauj against Shashanka, king of Bengal. Even though Bhaskaravarman was a hindu , he also patronized Buddhism. He died without a heir. After Bhaskaravarmans death, Kamrupa came under the rule of the Salasthambha Mlechha dynasty.Note:Varman kingdom of Kamrupa/Pragjyotisha was situated around the Brahmaputra river valley around present day Guwahati and Tezpur

Mlechha kings was aboriginal. There were twenty one rulers. Amongst the prominent kings were:

Salasthambha(655-670),Vijaya/Vighrasthambha,Harshadeva/Harshavarman(725-745),Balavarman II, Pralambha/Salambha,Harjaravarman(815-832),Vanamalavarmadeva(832-855),Jayamala/Virabahu(855-860),Balavarman III (860-880),Tyagasimha(890-900). The Mlechas were forced out of their base by the Kamrupa Pala kings towards Dimapur,Maibong,Khaspur (Kachari kingdom) and Sadiya(Chutiya kingdom) where they established minor kingdoms.Note:Mlecha kingdom capital was at Hadpeshwar(present day Tezpur). Branches (remnants) of the Mlecha dynasty later established Kachari and Chutiya kingdoms.

Kamrupa Pala kings Unlike their Buddhist counterparts of Bengal, the Kamrupa Palas were Vaishanavites and drew their lineage from the Varman kings. Their kings list is :

Brahmapala (900-920)was their first king, Ratnapala (920-960),Indrapala (960-990),Gopala (990-1015),Harshapala (1015-1035),Dharmapala (1035-1060),Jayapala (1075-1100).

Gaud Pala kings of Bengal replaced the Pala kings when their king Ramapala invaded Kamrupa and established Timgyadeva as the governor. But Timgyadeva (1110-26) soon declared his independence. He was attacked by Kumarapala, the son of Ramapala and replaced by Vaidyadeva. But Vaidyadeva (1126-1140) also declared his independence after the death of Kumarapala.

After the break up of the Kamarupa kingdom,its area was divided into smaller kingdoms and fiefdoms.To the east rose Sutia,Ahom and Kachari kingdoms.To the west the Barobhuyans formed a buffer region between the east and the Kamata kingdom.

Kamata kingdom sprung up in the mid seventh century and ruled the land boundaried by Karatoya,Brahmaputra,Doaars,Padma Brahmaputra.Sangaldip was one of their earliest kings in the mid 7^th century. The Khen and Koch dynasties were the successors to the Kamata kingdom.

Khen kings

The Khen kings replaced the Palas in Assam.Their notable kings were:

Prithu (1185-1228)first ruler of the Khen dynasty from Kheng-Bhutanese race. He repulsed the first Turkish invasion by Bakhtiar in 1205/6 and again by Ghiasuddin(son in law of Nasiruddin) in 1227. In 1228, Delhi Turkish sultan Nasiruddin (Iltumish’s son) killed the Kamrupa king Prithu (first ruler of Khen dynasty) and attacked Tibet. But the Turks couldn’t hold on to Kamrupa for long. Sandhya (1250-60) son.The second invasion by the Turks took place in 1257, by Ihtiyaruddin Yuzbak or Tughril Khan. Earlier the capital Kamrupnagar was transferred to Kamatanagar (during the time of king Saindhya, who reestablished the Khen rule). Sindhurai (1260-85), Rupnarayan (1285-1300),Singhdhwaj(1300-05),Pratapdhwaj (1305-25),Dharmanarayan (1325-30),Durlabhnarayan (1330-50),Indranarayan(1350-65),Sasanka/Arimatta(1365-85)changed capital to Vaidyanagar, Gajanka (1385-1400),Sukranka (1400-1415),Mriganka (1415-40),Niladhwaj (1440-60),Chakradhwaj (1460-80),Nilambar (1480-98)was the last king and their kingdom passed over to the Islamic invader Allauddin Hussain Shah, sultan of Bengal(who could not hold on for long and was driven away by the Bhuyans and Ahoms) . Subsequently the kingdom came to be ruled by the Koch dynasty.

Chutiya (Sutiya) kings

This kingdom was established in 1187 in Northeastern Assam and parts of Arunachal Pradesh by King Birpal. They were a Tibeto Burman race. Birpals son Gaurinarayan (Ratnadhwajpal). In 1673 the Chutiyas came under the Ahom rule(under Ahom King Dihingiyaraja).

Barobhuyan chieftains

This kingdom was formed in eastern Kamrup but later came under the Ahoms (Pratapsingha).

Kachari kingdom

They belonged to the Dimasa Bodo Kachari group and called themselves descendents of Ghatotkacha the son of Pandava prince Bhima. They ruled from their capital Hidimbapur (Dimapur) in the 13^th century. They were pushed away by the Ahoms in the 16^th century to Maibong (At Maibong, the acharis adopted a Brahmanical lifestyle). Later in the 18^th century, the Koch ruler at Khaspur died and the Kachari kings took over their kingdom. The Kachari kingdom shifted their capital to Khaspur(near Silchar).

Their notable kings were:

Dimapur: (13^th century)Bicharpatiha,Vikramadityapha,Mahamanipha,Manipha,Ladapha,Khorapha,Khunkhorapha,Detsungpha.

Maibong:Nirbhay Narayan(1540-50),Durlabh Narayan/Harmeshwar (1550-76),Meghanarayan (1576-83),Satrudaman(Pratap narayan,Jasanarayan 1583-1613),Narnarayan(1613-),Bhidarpa Narayan(-1637),Indraballabh Narayan (1637-),Birdarpa Narayan (-1681),Garudhwaj Narayan,Maardhwaj,Udayaditya,Tamradhwaj Narayan(1699-1708),Queen Chandraprabha,Suradarpanarayan(-1730),Dharmadhwaj narayan(Harishchandra narayan),Kirichandra Narayan(1735-45),Gopichandra Narayan (1745-57).

Khaspur: Harishchandra II (1757-72),Krishnachandra Narayan (1772-1813),Gobindchandra Narayan(1813-30)

Gobindchandra died without a heir and the British annexed their kingdom as per their Doctrine of Lapse.

Jayantiya kingdom

They ruled in the Jayantia hills and were allies of the Ahoms. Notable rulers- Jashamanik and Dhamamanik. However their king Jahomatarai had a territory dispute with the Ahoms (with their kingNariyaraja -1644/48) and their relations soured to some extent.

Koch kings

After the fall of the Khen dynasty in 1498, the Koch dynasty came into prominence. They were a Tibeto Burmese race.They established the Koch kingdom (Kamrupa and .Assam)which later split into the Koch Behar and Koch Hajo dynasty. The Koch Behar (Cooch Behar) became an Mughal ally while the Koch Hajo became an Ahom ally. A third branch at Khaspur was formed that merged into the Kachari kingdom. There were also minor branches at Darrang,Beltala and Bijni.

The earliest kings of undivided Koch kingdom were:

Chandan Narayan (1510-23) was the son of a Mech chief, Raja Haridas Mondal(1510-1515). Expanded kingdom greatly.

Biswa Singha (Vishwa Singha a.ka Bisu- 1523/54):brother. He married the daughter of the Koch chief,Bhuyiyan Koch Hajo and unified various tribes against the Barobhuyans and established the Kamata-Koch kingdom. His successor was Naranarayan and second son kamal narayan at the kingdom of Khaspur.

Naranarayan (1554-86): was the son and successor of Biswa singha.During his time the kingdom reached its cultural zenith.

He distributed his kingdom between his brother ‘s(Chilarai or Shukladhwaj his brother and general/commander in chiefs)son Raghudeva who got the eastern part Koch Hajo and his son Laxmi Narayan who got the western Koch Bihar. Koch Bihar later became a Mughal and then a British vassal kingdom, while Koch Hajo passed hands between the Mughals and the Ahoms.

Kings of Koch Bihar: Laxminarayan(1587-1621), Birnarayan(1621-26)first to open schools ),Prannarayan(1626-65, captured Dhaka),Modnarayan(1665-85, helped Delhi sultanate against Ahoms),Basudevnarayan(1680-82),Mahindranarayan(1682-93),Roopnarayan(1693-1714),Upendranarayan(1714-63),Devendranarayan(1764-65. Bhutanese king invades kingdom),Dhairrajendranarayan(1765-70-imprisoned by Bhutanese army),Rajendranarayan(1770-72),Dharendranarayan(1772-75, drove away Bhutanese with British help),Harendranarayan(1783-1840),Shivendranarayan(1840-47),Narendranarayan(1847-63, adopted as successor by his uncle banned Sati in kingdom),Col Sir.Nripendranarayan(1863-97),Rajrajendranarayan II (1911-13),Jitendranarayan(1913-22),Jagaddipendranarayan (last ruler.served in the British army and post 1949 joined the Indian union).

Kings of Koch Hajo: Raghudev(late 16^th century) , Parikshitnarayan(Rule:early 17^th century, attacked by the Mughals and taken prisoner to Delhi court. His son Chandranarayan formed a new kingdom at Bijni.But Parikshitnarayan’s brother Balinarayan escaped and sought refuge with the Ahoms. His descendents formed the vassal state of Darrang(region between Bharali and Barnadi rivers, under the Ahoms).

Another brother Gajnarayan ruled at Beltala.

Rulers of Darrang: Balinarayana(fought war against Mughals with Ahom help,1616-38),Mahendranarayan(son of Balinarayan),Chandranarayan,Suryanarayan(In 1682, Mughals attacked his kingdom, deposing him. But Ahoms regained control of Darang).

Rulers of Bijni: Chandranarayan,Joynarayan,Shivnarayan,Bijoynarayan,Mukundanarayan,Haridevnarayan,Indranarayan,Amritnarayan,Kumudnarayan,Bhairabendranarayan. Indian government took control of Bijni in 1956.

Rulers of Khaspur: Kamalnarayan,Uditanarayan,Vijayasingha,Dhirsingha,Mahendrasingha,Ranjitsingha,Narasingha,Bhimasingha(his daughter Kanchani married Laxmichandra , prince of Kachari kingdom and Khaspur merged into Kachari).

Ahom kings

The Ahoms belonged to the Shan Tai Mong Mao race that originates in parts of southern China and southeast Asia. They adopted the Hindu religion. They formed kingdoms in regions of Kamrupa in the early 13^th century.

Their kings list is as under:

Sukhapa (1228-68) was a Shan prince who captured parts of Assam after descending from the Patkai mountains. He ruled from his capital at Charaideo.

Sutepha (1268-81)son

Subinpha (1281-93) son

Sukhangpha (1293-1332)son

Suharampha (1332-64)son- 1364-69 interregnum

Sutupha (1369-76) brother. Assasinated- 1376-80 interregnum

Tyaao Khamti (1380-89)son of Sukhangpha.assasinated.1389-97 interregnum

Sudangpha(1397-1407)aka. Bamuni kumar.son. Shifted capital to Charagua

Sujangpha(1407-1422)son

Suphakpha(1422-39)son

Susenpha(1439-88)son

Suhenpha (1488-93)son.assasinated.

Supimpha (1493-97)son

Suhunmung(1497-1539)son.aka.Swarganarayan/Dihingia Roja I.assasinated. ruled from capital Bakata.

Suklenmung (1539-52)aka Garghyan Roja.son. Ruled from capital Garhgaon.

Sukhampha(1552-1603)son.aka.Khura Roja

Susengpha(1603-41)aka Pratapsingha/Burha Roja/Buddhiswarganarayan.son kingdom expanded to the west came into conflict with the Mughals.good administrator and king.

Surampha(1641-44)aka Jayaditya singha/ Bhoga roja.son.deposed by Sutingpha.

Sutingpha(1644-48)aka Nooriya Roja.brother.deposed. murdered by his son Sutamla.

Sutamla(1648-63)aka.Jayadhwaj singha.son.ruled from capital Garhgaon/Bakata.adopted the monotheist Mahapuruxia religion.

Supangmung(1663-71)aka.Chakradhwaj singha.cousin. His general Lachit Borphukan stemmed Mughal expansionism by defeating Mughal army at Guwhati (Battle of Saraighat).

Sunyatpha(1671-72)aka Udyaditya singha.brother.deposed as he was a bigot and unpopular.

Suklanpha (1672-74)aka Ramadhwaj singha.brother.poisened.

Suhunga(1674-75)aka Samaguria Roja.descendent of Suhunmung

Gobar raja(1675) great grandson of Suhunmung deposed by Atarn Buragohain and executed.

Sujingpha(1675-77) grandson of Pratapsingha.deposed/blinded n commited suicide.

Sudoipha(1677-79)great grandson of Suhunmung.deposed/killed.

Sulikpha(1679-81)Samaguria family.deposed/killed.

Supatpha(1681-96)aka Gadadhar singha.son of Gobar raja.ruled from Borkola.established rule of Tungkhungia clan. Retook Guwahati from the Mughals.Good administrator.

Sukhrungpha(1696-1714)aka Rudrasingha .son.ruled from Rangpur.banished his brother Lechai fearing his ambitions.

Sutanpha (1714-44)aka Siba singha.son. adopted Shaktism religion. Patron of arts and literature. Built several temples.

Sunenpha(1744-51 )brother.aka Pramata singha.good administrator.Built Rangghar amphitheatre.

Surempha(1751-69)brother.aka.Rajeshwar singha.built Manikarneshwar temple,Sureshwar and Siddheswar temples.sent an army to aid deposed (by Burmese) ruler of Manipur.

Sunyeopha(1769-80)brother.aka Laxmisingha. persecution of Mahapuruxia religionists started leading to disunity in the kingdom and the Moamoria rebellion(led by Mohanmala, son of Lechai).held captive by rebels but later regained his kingdom.

Suhitpangpha(1780-1795)aka Gaurinath singha.son.lost Rangpur to rebels of Mormaria,ruled from capital at Jorhat.Commisioned team of Nora astronomers to reexamine history of Ahoms.

Suklingpha(1795-1811)great grandson of Lechai, brother of Rudrasingha.aka Kamleshwar singha.died as a minor by small pox.

Sudingpha 1(1811-18)brother.deposed and imprisoned.

Purandar singha(1818-19)descendent of Surempha.defeated Burmese invaders, but capital Jorhat fell to the Burmese.

Sudingpha 2^nd term.(1819-21)aka Chandrakanta singha.brother of Suklingpha.fled from the capital after Bagyidaw Burmese invasion by Milingmaha Tilwa. BURMESE RULE 1819-24.

Jogeshwar singha(1821-22)brother of Hemo Aideo, Bagyidaw queen of Burma, puppet of the Burmese ruler.removed.

Purandar singha 2^nd term(1822-38)installed by the British East India company as tributary Raja of Upper Assam.

The British converted Assam into a principality ending the Ahom rule.

The Thanesar kingdom: Harshavardhana

2010-09-07T06:59:00.000-07:00

Thanesar is a small region in northern India. It was then known as Sthanviswara of Srikantha Janapada. Today Thanesar is the part of Haryana state of modern India. In the ancient times it gained prominence as a capital of Harshavardhana, one of the most illustrious of Indian emperors . During the peak of his reign, his kingdom covered Haryana, Punjab,Uttar Pradesh,Rajasthan,Orissa ,Bengal and entire Gangetic belt till Narmada river.

Harshavardhana belonged to the Pushyabhuti dynasty(started by their patriarch Pushyabhuti ,a Shiva worshipper). Today we know about him and his ancestors through several discovered plates,seals, inscriptions,coins (at Banskheda,Madhuban,Nalanda,Sonepat,Nabha) and texts like Harshacharita by Banabhat and the accounts(Si-yuki) of the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang.

The Pushyabhutis were probably vassals of the Malwa kings and later the Gupta kings, but post Huna invasion declared their independence.

As per the Madhubana /Sonepat copper plate inscriptions some of the kings of the Pushyabhuti dynasty were:

Naravardhana(510AD)

Rajyavardhana

Adityavardhana

Prabhakarvardhana(580-606 AD).He was an independent monarch who used the title Maharajadhiraja before his name. He established matrimonial relations with the Maukharis by marrying his daughter Rajashri to their king Grahavarman. Prabhakarvardhana was a Shaivite and Sun worshipper. Along with his son Rajyavardhana, Prabhakaravardhana had repelled Huna attacks.Prabhakaravardhana came to be known as the lion to the Huna deer.

Rajyavardhana II .son.Immediately after his succession, his brother in law Grahavarman was killed by the Devagupta, King of Malava and his sister was taken prisoner. Rajyavardhana attacked the Malavas and defeated them. But Sasanka the king of Gauda(Bengal) pretending friendship treacherously killed Rajyavardhana at the behest of the Malavas. Rajyavardhana had earlier converted to Buddhism.

Harshavardhana a.k.a Siladitya (606-647 AD).brother. Harshavardhana, the brother of Rajyavardhana was just 16 at the time of Rajyavardhanas murder.Hhe swore revenge . He defeated Sasanka of Gauda , killed Devagupta and freed his sister. Harsha later subdued the Maitrekas who were ruling Vallabhi, the Gurjaras also in the west, Magadha(Bihar),Bengal(Sasankas son Manava was ousted after Sasankas death), Orissa were also captured.Bhaskaravarman the king of Kamarupa (Assam) was his close ally. Harshavardhanas daughter was married to Dhruvasena II of Vallabhi (who was earlier defeated by Harsha)and their son was Dharasena IV (a.k.a Dhruvabhata Baladitya) of Vallabhi (Saurashtra,present day Gujrat state). Harsha shifted his capital to Kannauj.

Harshavardhanas southern conquests were limited only upto Narmada , as he was stopped in his tracks by the Chalukyan king,Pulakeshin II.

Towards the end of his reign Harsha (a rule of 41 years) was the ruler of a large kingdom which included regions in north, central,western and eastern India.

Harsha was a Shaivite who later accepted Buddhism and helped propogate it in the north. He was extremely generous and donated a lot in charity. He helped build monasteries for the Buddhists and contributed to the Nalanda university. He had very good relations with the Chinese emperor and the famous traveller Hieuen Tsang was his honoured guest.Harsha was also a writer of merit and authored plays like Nagananda,Ratnavali and Priyadarshika. Banabhat was his court poet who authored Harshacharita a treatise on Harsha and his times.

After Harshavardhana , there were no male heirs and the kingdom was usurped by his minister Arjuna.

The Tibetan book ‘White Annals’ states that when the Chinese Tang emperor ,Tang Taizong sent his emissary,Wang Xuance to Thanesar he found that Harsha was dead and his throne was usurpped by his minister Arjuna who allegedly tried to take him prisoner. But the emissary escaped to Tibet and sought the Tibetan kings help in defeating Arjuna. Thus Arjuna was taken a prisoner and sent to the Chinese court.

After Harshas death, his vast empire fragmented into several smaller kingdoms .

History of Goa

2010-08-09T10:26:00.000-07:00

Goa is modern India’s smallest state. It is located on the Konkan coast (facing the Arabian sea), sharing its boundaries with the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka .

Goa in the ancient period went by various names including Gomanta, Gomantak, Goparapuri, Govapuri, Gomanchala, Goparashtra (derived from Gova rashtra or the land of the cow herds, and mentioned as such in the Mahabharata). The name Goa is also said to have been derived from the Konkani word 'Goyan', which means a patch of tall grass. It was alternatively known as Aparahanta by the third century BC.

Goa was also known to the Greeks by the name Chersonesus or Nelikinda (Periplus), Nekanidon (Pliny), Melinda or Tricadiba Insula (Ptolemy), Nincilda (Peutingerian tables), Sibo and to the arabs by the names Sindabur, Chintabur and Cintabor.

Its origins run back into mythology. It is said that warrior ascetic, Sage Parshurama struck a arrow into the deep seas and ordered the God of oceans to convert the area covered by the arrow into dry land. This tract of land came to be known as Goa. The area where the arrow landed was Benali or todays Benaulim. Parshurama invited several Brahmins to settle down in Goa. These particular sects are called Gauda Saraswat Brahmins.

But historians have concluded a more plausible version for the arrival of the Gauda Saraswat Brahmins in Goa. Apparently they were a section of Aryan tribes that migrated away from Northern India (Kashmir,Punjab) after the drying up of River Saraswati. Incidently while Saraswati was drying up, resulting in famine, these brahmins took to eating fish (Note, the brahmins are usually vegetarian). Their exodus began in all directions like Uttar Pradesh,Rajputana ,Bihar (Trihotra) and Bengal (Gauda). The tribe that settled in the eastern regions of Trihotra, Gauda further travelled down to Goa, quite possibly at the invitation of Sage Parshurama.

Dynasties ruling Goa:

1.Maurya colony 3^rd century BC

2. Satavahans ruled Goa through their feudatories, the Chutus of Karwar (2BC-2AD). Some of the known Chutu kings were Chutukulananda (30BC-70AD),Mulananda (78-175 AD), Sivalananda (175-280 AD).

3.Western Kshatrapas of Saka origins (2^nd cen AD).

4.Abhiras(3-4th cen AD). Known Abhira kings were Mathari,Ishwarsena,Virasena,Shivadatta

5.Traikutas(4^th -5thcentury).Known Traikuta kings:Indratta,Daharasena,Vyaghrasena,Madhyamasena.

5.Bhojas of the Yadava clans of Gujrat(5-6^th cen AD).Known Bhoja kings: Prithivimalavarman,Kapalivarman,Asantika.

6. Konkan Mauryas (6^th cen AD).There is a mention of a Maurya king Suketuvarman who was attacked by the Chalukyas.

7. Kalyani Chalukyas through their feudatories the Kadambas. (6^th-14^th cen AD).Chandrapur (Chandor/ Chandawar) is their capital and later Govapuri on the banks of river Zuari.They were later feudatories of the Seuna Yadavas. The last king was a subordinate of the Salvas of Gerasoppa.

Refer link : http://indianhistory-ace.blogspot.com/2009/08/kadamba-dynasty-kings-list.html

8.Rashtrakutas (8-9^th cen AD) ruled some regions of Goa.

9.Kalyani Chalukyas through their feudatories the Silharas (9-13^th AD) ruled some regions of Goa. Kalachuris also ruled some parts in the 12^th century AD.

10.Delhi Sultanate- 1312.

11.Bahamani Sultans-1350/14th century

12.Vijayanagara hindu empire -1370.-1469 and again the Bahamanis in 1470.

13.Adilshahi Sultanate of Bijapur ruled through their feudatories the Desais and the Sawants.

14.Portuguese in 1510 (and some parts of Goa by the Marathas in the latter half of the 18^th century) ….Temporary British control in 1812-1815.

Portuguese Rule in Goa:

The first Portuguese presence in the Indian subcontinent was in the form of the explorer Vasco Da Gama who discovered a new sea route to India across the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. He landed in Calicut,Kerala.

However the first inroads in Goa were made by Alfonso de Albureque. Then Goa was a part of the Bijapur sultanate. After initial attempts, Alfonsoe established control over Goa on 25^th Nov,1510. It is said that post the capture of Goa, Alfonsoe massacared its entire muslim settlement in retaliation to the resistance shown by them. However Alfonsoe spared the Hindus, mainly because of the help provided by a local Hindu chieftain Timoja. By 1543, the Portuguese established their control in the neighbouring areas of Ilhas,Salcette,Marmgoa and Bardez.

In 1542, St Xaviers and his Jesuits entered Goa for their missionary work. The Portuguese who were initially tolerant of Hinduism later changed their stance after the arrival of the dreaded Inquisition in 1540. After that, Hindu rituals were banned, temples were destroyed, people were burnt at the stake. This resulted in a lot of forced proselytisation and suppression of the Hindu populace.

The anti Hindu policy of the Portuguese continued till the first half of the nineteenth century. In 1835 religious freedom was granted to the Goans amidst several revolts and political protests. The Portuguese rule then onwards was quite good for Goans in general especially in terms of religious freedom. In 1910 Portugal became a democracy and this change reflected in the affairs of Goa as well.

However in 1928, Dr Antonio Salazar became the dictator of Portugal and things for the Goans once again again changed for the worse. There was a large scale suppression of human rights in Goa.

In 1947 , India gained independence from the British, but Goa remained a Portuguese colony despite several requests to the Portuguese government to cede Goa to India.

On Dec17th,1961,Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime minister of India (after a series of failed talks with Portugal), ordered the forceful annexation of Goa to the Indian republic. The 3000 odd Portuguese troops were no match for the 30,000 India troops and they soon surrendered. Within three days (19^th Dec 1961), Goa became a union territory in the republic of India, along with Diu and Daman (the other Portuguese territories that were simultaneously captured by the Indian army), in what was a virtual bloodless ‘Operation Vijay ’.

December 19^th is since celebrated as Goa Liberation Day.

List of Portuguese Heads in Goa

Dom Tristao Da Cunha (1504). He was appointed India’s first Portuguese viceroy. However he couldn’t assume office due to temporary blindness. In 1506, he led a Portuguese fleet (along with his cousin Alfonsoe de Albureque)towards Africa and India and distinguished himself in the seige of Kannur in Kerala (1507).

Note: Dom=Lord in Portuguese.

Dom Fransisco de Almeida (1505-1509) He replaced Tristao as Indias Portuguese Viceroy. He brought regions of Kerala, Diu,Daman,Anjediva (near Goa/Karnataka) etc under his control. His son Lorenco was killed in the battle of Chaul. Francisco decided to return to Portugal in 1509, but died on the way.

Dom Alfonsoe de Albureque (1509-1515) captured Goa. Distinguished himself in Kerala,Diu,Daman,Mallaca and Hormuz. Served as Portuguese governor in India and later Viceroy (also awarded the title of Duke of Goa). Due to misunderstandings with Manuel, the King of Portugal, he was divested of his powers in Goa. Alfonsoe de Albureque couldn’t take the shock and died in 1515 in Goa. Only after Alfonsoes death King Manuel realised his mistake and Alfonsoes loyalty towards the throne.

Dom Lopo Soares de Albergaria (1515-1518) was sent by King Manuel to supercede Alfonsoe. He also captured Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Quillon (in Kerala) for the Portuguese. Returned to Portugal in 1818.

Dom Diogo Lopes de Sequeira (1518-1522) Alfonsoes lieutenant. Replaced Lopo Soares as the Governor of Goa. Constructed the fort of Chaul (near Alibaug,Konkan).

Dom Duarte de Menezes (1522-1524) He was stationed in Africa before he took over as Governor of Goa. However he was dismissed and recalled to Portugal.

Dom Vasco Da Gama (Sept-Dec1524)famous for having discovered the sea route to India via Cape of Good Hope and also famous for his cruelties against muslims in particular. He was appointed Viceroy in India. Contracted Malaria in Goa and died in Cochin,Kerala.

Dom Henrique de Menezes (1525-1526) Died at Cannanore (Kannur in Kerala).

Lopes Vas de Sampaio (1526-1529)arrested and returned to Portugal as a prisoner.

Nuno da Cunha (1529-1538 ) son of Tristao daCunha. Appointed Governor of Goa.Conquered Bombay,Bassein (Vasai near Bombay),Diu and Daman. Due to court politics he was forced to return back, but he drowned and died on the way.

Dom Garcia de Norhonha (1538-1540) Appointed Governor of Goa. He was another of Alfonsoes lieutenants. Died in Cochin.

Estevao da Gama (1540-1542) Son of Vasco da Gama. Appointed Governor.Former Captain of Mallaca. Fought wars in Africa.

Martim Afonso de Sousa (1542-1545) earlier had commanded the first expedition to Brazil and had served as a governor there. He also acquired Diu for the Portuguese. Returned to Portugal.

Dom Joao de Castro (1545-1548) Governor and later Fourth Viceroy of India and nephew of Garcia de Norhonha.Overthrew the Mahmud, king of Gujrat. Captured Bharuch (Gujrat). Died and buried in Goa. Also a friend of King Manuel I and Saint Xaviers.

Garcia de Sa (1548-1549)Governor. Acquired Bardez and Salcette. Died in Goa.

Jorge Cabral (1549-1550) interim governor.Returned to Portugal.

Dom Afonso de Norhonha (1550-1554)Viceroy. Former Governor of Ceuta (Africa).returned to Portugal.

Pedro Masceranhas (1554-1555)Viceroy.Discovered the island of Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean. Mascarene island was also named after him.Died in Goa.

Francisco Barretto (1555-1558)Governor.Explorer. Returned to Portugal. Said to be a very fanatic towards Catholic. Printing press introduced in Goa. Inquisition in Goa.

Dom Constantino de Braganza (1558-1561)Viceroy. Said to be a very fanatic towards Catholic. Returned to Portugal.occupation of Daman by Portuguese.

Dom Francisco Coutinho (1561-1564)Viceroy. Died in Goa.

Joao de Mendonca (1564) Governor. Returned to Portugal.

Antonio de Norhonha (1564-1568).Governor. All non Christian priests expelled from Goa.Died at sea while returning to Portugal.

Luis de Ataide (1568-1573) viceroy. Goa under siege by Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur.Returned to Portugal.

Antonio Moniz Baretto (1573-1576)Governor. Returned to Portugal.

Diogo de Menezes (1576-1578)Governor. Returned to Portugal.

Luis de Ataide (1578-1581)Viceroy for the second time. Died in Goa.

Fernao Teles de Menezes (1581-1591)governor.

Matias de Alburquerque (1591-1597).viceroy.

Dom Francisco da Gama Conde da Vidigueira(1597-1600) viceroy.

Aires de Saldanha (1600-1605) viceroy.

Martim Afonso de Castro (1605-1607)viceroy. Died at Mallacca.

Fr. Alexiode Meneses (1607-1609) He was the Archbishop of Goa and its governor.Said to be a fanatic catholic. Said to have commited several atrocities on the people of Goa and Kerala under the inquisition.

Andre Furtado Mendonca (1609) governor.

Rui Lourencode Tavora (1609-1612) viceroy.

Dom Jeronimo de Azevedo (1612-1617) viceroy.

Dom Joao Coutinho (1617-1619) viceroy.

Fernao de Alburquerque (1619-1622) governor.

Dom Fransisco da Gama (1622-1628) viceroy for the second time.

Fr Luis de Brito e Meneses (1628-1629) Viceroy and Bishop of Meliapore. Died in Cochin,Kerala.

Governing Council under Nuno Alvares Botelho,D.Lorencho da Cunha and Goncalo Pinto da Fonseca (1629)

Miguel de Norhonha, conde de Linhares (1629-1635) viceroy

Pero da Silva (1635-1639) viceroy.died in Goa.

Antonio Teles de Meneses (1639-1640) governor.

Joao da Silva Telo e Meneses, conde de Aveiras (1640-44) viceroy. Second stint. Died while returning to Portugal.

Governing council under Fr Francisco dos Martires(Archbishop of Goa), Fransisco d’melo e Castro and Antonio deSousa Coutinho (1651-52)

Vasco de Mascerrenhas, conde de Obidos (1652-55) viceroy. Expelled in an internal coup by one Bras de Castro. Mutiny led by Fr. Mateus de Castro to overthrow Portuguese rule

Rodreigo Lobo da Silveira (1655-56) governor. Arrests Bras de Castro and becomes governor. Dies in Goa.

Governing council under Manuel Mascerenhas Homem, Francisco d’Melo e Castro, Antonio d’Sousa Coutinho (1656-1661) Governing council under Luís de Mendonça Furtado e Albuquerque,Manuel Mascerenhas Homem,D.Pedro de lencastre (1661-62) Bombay given to British as part of dowry of Catherine of Braganza to Charles II of England

Antonio d’Melo e Castro (1662-66) Viceroy

Joao Nunes da Cunha, conde de Sao Vicente (1666-68) viceroy.died in Goa.

Governing council under Antonio d’Melo e castro, Manuel Corte Real de Sampio and Luis de Miranda Henriques. (1968-71)

Luis de Mendonca Furtado e Alburqueque (1671-76) viceroy. Died on way back to Portugal.

Pedro de Almeida , conde de Assumar (1676-78) viceroy.died in Goa.

Antonio Brandao (1678-81) Archbishop of Goa and Interim governor (for sometime with António Pais de Sande).
Francisco de Tavora, conde de Alvor (1681-86) viceroy. Attack on Goa by Marathas under Sambhaji. Goa would have been captured by the marathas, if only the mughals hadnt opened a new war front.

Dom Rodrigo da Costa (1686-90) governor.

Dom Miguel de Almeida (1690-91).governor.died in goa.

Governing council under Fernando Martins Mascarenhas Lencastreand Fr. Agostinho da Anunciação (Archbp of Goa) 1691-92

Pedro Antonio de Meneses Norhonha de Alburqueque (1692-97)returned to Portugal.

Antonio Luis Gonsalves da Camara Coutinho (1697-1701)

Governing council under Fr. Agostinho da Anunciação (Archp of Goa) D. Vasco Lima Coutinho (1701-1702)

Caetano de Melo e Castro (1702-07) viceroy

Dom Rodrigo d’Costa (1707-12 ) viceroy for second time

Vasco Fernandes Cesar de Meneses, conde de Sabugosa (1712-17) viceroy.returned to Portugal.

Fr.Sebastiao de Andrade Pessanha (1717)Archbishop of Goa and Governor.

Luis Carlos Inacio Xavier de Meneses, conde de Ariceira (1717-20) viceroy

Fransisco Jose de Sampio e Castro (1720-23)viceroy. died in Goa. Treaty with the Maratha King Shahu in 1722.

Cristovao de Melo (1723)Interim Governor
Governing council under Cristóvão de Melo , Fr. Inácio de Santa Teresa (Archbp of Goa) and Cristóvão Luís de Andrade (1723-25)

Joao de Saldanha da Gama (1725-32) viceroy. Returned to Portugal.

Governing council under Cristóvão de Melo, Fr. Inácio de Santa Teresa (Archbp of Goa) and Tomé Gomes Moreira. (1732)

Pedro de Mascarenhas, conde de Sandomil (1732-40) viceroy. Start of war with Marathas and Portuguese for Bassein in 1737. Marathas attack Goa in 1739.

Luis Carlos Inacio Xavier de Meneses, conde de Ericeira (1740-42) viceroy fr second time. Marathas defeated by Portuguese forces. Luis died at Goa.

Governing council under Francisco de Vasconcelos, Lourenço de Noronha and Luís Caetano de Almeida (1742-44)

Pedro Miguel de Almeida,Marquis de Alorna (1744-50)viceroy.

Francisco Assis de Tavora (1750-54)Viceroy. Returned to Portugal. Executed in 1759.

Luis Mascarenhas, conde de Alva (1754-56) viceroy. Died in Goa.

Governing council under António Taveira da Neiva Brum da Silveira(Archbp of Goa), João de Mesquista Matos Teixeira and Filipe de Valadares (1756-57)

Manuel de Saldanha Alburqueque, conde de Ega (1758-65) viceroy. Viceroy takes up residence in Panaji in 1759. Peace concluded with Marathas . Acquisition of Ponda, Sanguem and Quepem to Goa territory in 1763.Retuned to Portugal. Portuguese fall out with the Jesuits in 1759, the Jesuit order is banned.

Governing council under . António Taveira da Neiva Brum da Silveira(Archbp of Goa), João Baptista Vaz Pereira and D. João José de Melo (1765-68)

Joao Jose de Melo (1768-74) governor.promoted to Captain General.died in Goa.

In 1771, The title 'Viceroy of the Indies' is abolished and replaced by 'Captain-General of the Indies' by royal proclamation. This is a recognition of the fact that the idea of a true vice-regency in India is now impossible, especially in the face of growing British power in the sub-continent.

Filippe de Valadares Sotomaior (1774).

José Pedro da Câmara (b. 1721 - d. 1789. R.1774-79).

Federico Guilherme de Sousa (b. 1737 - d. 1790. r 1779-86) Conspiracy of Pinto family in Bardez to overthrow Portuguese rule in 1787.Several territories like Bicholim, Stari addedby the Portuguese to their Goa territory. These acquisitions were known as Novas Conquestas.

Francisco da Cunha e Meneses (b. 1747 - d. 1812. R.1786-94) .Pernem,Ponda,Sangquem,Quepem,Canacona added as apart of Novas conquestas.

Francisco António da Veiga Cabral da Câmara Pimentel (b. 1733 - d. 1810. R.1794-1807) British blockade in Goa in 1797.

Bernardo José da Silveira e Lorena conde de Sarzedas (b. 1756 - d. 1818. 1807-16) Pernem added to Goa in1812.End of Inquisition. Representatives sent to House of Representatives,Lisbon. End of British blocade in 1813.

Diogo de Sousa, conde de Rio Pardo (b. 1755 - d. 1829. R. 1816-21).

Governing Council under Manuel Godinho da Mira , Joaquim Manuel Correia da Silva e Gama , Gonçalo de Magalhães Teixeira and Manuel Duarte Leitão ( 1821-22).

Governing Council under Manuel Maria Gonçalves Zarco da (b. 1789 - d. 1825) Câmara , Fray Paulo de San Thomé de Aquino , António de Mello Souto Maior , João Carlos Leal and António José de Lima Leitão. (1822-23).

Manuel Maria Gonçalves Zarco da Câmara (1823- 1824).governor.

Governing council under Fray Manuel de San Galdino , Candido José Mourão Garcez Palha and António Ribeiro de Carvalho (1825-27).

Manuel Francisco de Portugal e Castro (b. 1787 - d. 1854, governor 1827 to 7 Apr 1830) .

Bernardo Peres da Silva (b. 1775 - d. 1846. R. 1835. The Portuguese anti-Hinduism policy undergoes a dramatic rethink following several revolts and political protests. Religious freedom is granted to them in return for a peaceful and stable colony.Bernardo was the first Goan to be appointed 'Perfect' with powers of a governor, however for a short time, as within 17days due to opposition from the Portuguese faction, he had to relinquish his post after he was arrested and deported to Bombay. A section of the Goan native army.revolts, but soon crushed. Bernardo escapes to British India, never to return to Goa.

Joaquim Manuel Correia da Silva e Gama (1835. Chairman of provincial council).

Provincial government João C. da Rocha Vasconcellos ,Manuel José Ribeiro (d. 1837) , Fray Constantino de Santa Rita (1835-36).

Governing council under João Cabral de Estifique , António Maria de Mello , Joaquim António de Moraes
Carneiro (1836-37).

José António de Lemos + António Mariano de Azevedo (d. 1838)

Simão Infante de Lacerda de Sousa Tavares, barão de Sabroso (b. 1793 - d. 1838. R.1837-38 ) First governor general.

Governing Council under António Feliciano de Santa Rita , José António Vieira da Fonseca (b. 1793 - d. 1863) , José Cancio Freire de Lima , Domingo José Mariano Luiz (1838-39).

José António Vieira da Fonseca (5 Mar 1839 - 15 Nov 1839) acting governor general.

Manuel José Mendes, barão de Candal (b. 1787 - d. 1840. R. 15 Nov 1839 - 18 Apr 1840) .

Governing council under José António Vieira da Fonseca (s.a.) , José Carneiro Freire de Lima , António João de Athaíde (1st time) , Domingo José Mariano Luiz , José da Costa Campos (1st time) , Caetano de Sousa e Vasconcellos (1st time) 1840

José Joaquim Lopez de Lima (b. c.1797 - d. 1852. R 1840-42)acting governor general.

Governing Council (acting) - António Ramalho da Sá - José de Mello Souta Maior Telles - António João de Athaíde (2nd time) - José da Costa Campos (2nd time) - Caetano de Sousa e Vasconcellos (2nd time) 1842.

Francisco Xavier da Silva Pereira (1842-43) Panaji made capital.

Joaquim Mourão Garcês Palha (b. 1775 - d. 1850. R.1843-44)

José Ferreira Pestana (1st time) (b. 1795 - d. 1885. R.1844-51) .

José Joaquim Januario Lapa, barão de Villa Nova de Ourém (b. 1796 - d. 1859. R. 1851-55) Uprising headed by Dipaji Rauji Sardesai in 1852. Portuguese make peace with him and he is presented with sword of honour along with autonomy for his village.

Governing council under Joaquim de Santa Rita Botelho , Luís da Costa Campos , Francisco Xavier Peres ,
Bernardo Hector da Silveira , Victor Anastacio Mourão Garcês Palha (1855).

António César de Vasconcellos Correia, visconde de Torres Novas (b. 1797 - d. 1865. R. 1855-64)

José Ferreira Pestana (2nd time) 1864-70.
Januario Correia de Almeida, visconde de São Januario (b. 1829 - d. 1901, r. 1870-71) .

Joaquim José de Macedo e Couto (b. 1810 - d. 1879. R.1871-75)

João Tavares de Almeida (b. 1816 - d. 1877. R. 1875-77)

António Sérgio de Sousa, visconde de Sérgio de Sousa(b. 1809 - d. 1878.r.1877-78)

Acting governing council under Ayres de Oruellas e Vasconcellos, João Caetano da Silva Campos, António Sergio de Sousa, Eduardo Augusto Pinto Balsemão and Thomas Nunes da Serva e Moura (Replaced Francisco Xavier Soares da Veiga) 1878.

Caetano Alexandre de Almeida e Albuquerque (b. 1824 - d. 1916. R. 1878-81)

Carlos Eugénio Correia da Silva, visconde de Paço de Arcos (b. 1834 - d. 1905, r. 1881-85)

Francisco Joaquim Ferreira do Amaral (b. 1843 - d. 1923. R. 1885-86)

Augusto César Cardoso de Carvalho (b. 1836 - d. 1905. R. 1886-89)

Vasco Guedes de Carvalho e Meneses (b. 1824 - d. 1905. R. 1889-91)

Francisco Maria da Cunha (b. 1832 - d. 1909. R. 1891-92)

Francisco Teixeira da Silva (b. 1826 - d. 1894. R.1892-93)

Raphael Jácome Lopes de Andrade (b. 1851 - d. 1900. R.1893-94)

Elesbão José de Betencourt Lapa, visconde de Vila Nova de Ourém (b. 1831 - d. 1899.r.1894-95) Uprising headed by Dadaji Rauji Rane Sardesai, who was deported to Timor in 1895, and died there 1906.

Raphael Jácome Lopes de Andrade (2nd time . 1895-96)

Afonso Henriques de Bragança, duque de Pôrto (b. 1865 - d. 1920. R.1896) Viceroy

João António de Brissac das Neves Ferreira (b. 1846 - d. 1902. R. 1896-97)

Joaquim José Machado (b. 1847 - d. 1925. R. 1897-1900)

Eduardo Augusto Rodrigues Galhardo (b. 1845 - d. 1908.r .1900-05)

Arnoldo de Novais Guedes Rebelo (b. 1847 - d. 1917.r.1905-07)

José Maria de Sousa Horta e Costa (b. 1858 - d. 1927.r .1907-10) The Portuguese First Republic is declared on 5 October 1910, following a military coup which is organised and backed by republicans and socialists.

Francisco Manuel Couceiro da Costa (b. 1870 - d. 1925, r. 1910-1917)

Francisco Maria Peixoto Vieira (1917) governor general for some time before controls transferred to a governing council.

José de Freitas Ribeiro (b. 1868 - d. 1929. R.1917-19)

Augusto de Paiva Bobelo da Mota (b. 1879 - d. 1931.r.1919).

Jaime Alberto da Castro Morais (b. 1882 - d. 1973.r.1919-25)

Francisco Maria Peixoto Vieira .1925.(2nd time)Unsuccessful uprising by Mourya Sawant, Jhil Sawant and Quistillo, a native catholic toddy farmer.A Negro regiment brought in from Mozambique to quell the rebellion. Quistillo was shot dead, Mourya Sawant beheaded and Jhil Sawant imprisoned and deported to Portuguese colony Principe in west africa, where he dies.

Mariano Martins (b. 1880 - d. 1943.r.1925-26) A coup is launched in Portugal by Dr Salazar on 28 May 1926 which results in a military dictatorship being instigated there. This also has major repercussions for Hindu rights and freedom in Goa from 1928.

Tito Augusto de Morais (b. 1880 - d. 1963. R. 1926)

Acúrsio Mendes da Rocha Dinis (b. 1885 - d. 1943.R.1926)

Pedro Francisco Massano de Amorim (b. 1862 - d. 1929.r.1926-29)

Alfredo Pedro de Almeida (b. 1888 - d. 1960.r.1929)

João Carlos Craveiro Lopes (b. 1871 - d. 1945. R.1929-36)

Francisco Higino Craveiro Lopes (b. 1894 - d. 1964. R.1936-38)

José Ricardo Pereira Cabral (b. 1879 - d. 1956.r.1938-45)

Paulo Bénard Guedes (b. 1892 - d. 1960.r.1945-46)

José Silvestre Ferreira Bossa (b. 1894 - d. 1970.r. 1946-47)

Fernando Quintanilha Mendonça Dias (b. 1898 - d. 1992.r.11947-48) India gains freedom from Britain in 1947. Despite several requests to the Portuguese government to cede Goa to India. this remains a colony.

José Alves Ferreira (1948)

Fernando Quintanilha Mendonça Dias (2nd time.r.1948-52)

Paulo Bénard Guedes (2nd time) 1952-58. Liberation of Dadra Nagar Haveli by Indian Forces. A revolutionary party by the name of Azad Gomantak Dal attacks Portuguese posts.

Manuel António Vassalo e Silva (1958-62)Last Portuguese governor general. The Portuguese colony in Goa is invaded by the Indian army on 12^th Dec 1961 and taken by force within three days. The Portuguese hand over the reins of power to the first Indian military governor, Kenneth P Candeth.

Goa is annexed to the Republic of India and forms its Union territory of Goa,Daman and Diu.

On 30^th May 1987, Goa is converted into India’s 25^th state.

Text : Abhijit Rajadhyaksha and Peter Kessler .